Working At Starbucks Essay -- Personal Narrative Job essays

I was making a grande vanilla bean frappiccino while different clients were holding up in line to have their request taken. Business was moderate that day, however hell, regularly at my particular employment was a moderate one. I would contemplate internally, Why the damnation am I despite everything working here? at the point when this spot gets no business by any means. Obviously, I work at Starbucks, not the ones that you see on the side of the lanes, however I worked at the one in Target. At my Starbucks, we would have one individual working each move. We had three movements for every day, the initial move, the noontime, and the end move. With all my karma I got to either open the store, or close the store. I truly didn’t like opening or shutting, yet I said to myself, cash is cash, and I can’t turn out badly with bringing in cash. Something else that pestered me about my activity was the cash. My beginning pay was just $6.50 every hour, while different Starbucks compensations began at $8.00 60 minutes. I didn’t apply anyplace else, so I surmise I was left with the activity I had for the time being. It was the principal Monday of the week, and I needed to open with my manager Tenesha. She was my manager at Starbucks, however had indistinguishable obligations from every other person that worked at Starbucks. On Mondays, we for the most part had a surge of clients, racing to get a blistering mug of espresso for the street to work, or simply morning mothers needing our new mix of espresso for the week. Be that as it may, Tenesha had stock that week, so I was stuck causing espresso the entire day to work Andrew, another worker came in around 1 p.m. It was around 10:00 a.m., ju...

Management and Leadership Principles Peter F Drucker

The board and Leadership Principles Peter F Drucker Presentation about Peter F Drucker Dwindle F Drucker, the dad of present day the executives was a social reporter and transcendent business thinker. Conceived on November 19, 1909, this administration expert composed books and other academic articles, investigating the manners by which organizations; governments and the non-benefit segments of society get sorted out. His differentiation among the board and administration has been a well known theme for banter for quite a long while at this point. Administration doing the correct things Authority goes about as an instrument in choosing the best strategy to take-what are the things that ought to be done to arrive at our objectives? However, as indicated by Druckers reasoning, administration is solid and effective when the pioneer thoroughly considers addresses like Of those things that would have any kind of effect, which are directly for me? By doing the correct things, he implied that successful authority is thinking about the companys strategic, it and straightforwardly building up it. It is a pioneers occupation to set clear objectives for the organization and characterize the norms should have been kept up while accomplishing the objectives. Staying alert that he isn't in charge of the universe, he needs to make settles. This, in any case, he does once he has thought of the privilege and the alluring. Drucker characterizes authority as everyday, unromantic and exhausting. Its embodiment lies in execution. Powerful pioneers continue checking their exhibition against the accomplishment of their objectives. This training encourages them to examine their decisions and choose what is significant and needs quick consideration. It additionally helps them in distinguishing their qualities and perceiving their shortcomings. With respect to, Drucker says: I have seen a large number individuals who are exceedingly acceptable at execution, however exceedingly poor at picking the significant things. They are wonderful at completing the irrelevant things. They have a noteworthy record of accomplishment on minor issues. Setting the correct sort of objectives assumes a critical job in building up a fruitful pioneer. It is of outrageous significance to set reasonable feasible objectives which fit in with the general strategic, as a primary concern the outside limitations, for example, political, prudent, and money related and inner requirements, for example, the current assets accessible and the relational issues. As per this announcement of his, lies the part of obligation inside initiative. Rank and benefit isn't the center to initiative. It is, truth be told, the awareness of other's expectations that the pioneer feels and displays that speaks to solid and dependable authority. Subsequently, an effective pioneer is one who steps up and tackle an assignment and utilizations the given assets ideally to determine greatest advantage. Drucker claims Americas head of armed force staff in World War II, General George Marshall, turned into a gainful pioneer through obligation and steadiness. Such sorts of pioneers don't fear oneself decided subordinates. Rather, they empower their youngsters, helping them to arrive at their latent capacity and achieve all that they are able to do. Being driven for a pioneer is far littler a hazard than being fair. A successful pioneer is additionally mindful of the result that associations face if there should arise an occurrence of the pioneers reprimand. As to this, Drucker properly says: A successful pioneer realizes that a definitive assignment of authority is to make human energies and human vision Drucker at one point worries over the adequacy that each pioneer is required to have. Be it in an administration office, a medical clinic, a business, a trade guild, a college or armed force, a pioneer appears to tolerate high knowledge and creative mind just seconds it. However he does not have the fundamental connection between his adequacy and his insight, creative mind or information. In any case, numerous pioneers interact with the hazardous close to victories traps which as a rule spin around the mentality that one major push is all that is required at this point. At such a phase, a pioneer ought to basically ask himself: When would it be a good idea for me to quit emptying assets into things that have accomplished their motivation? This unmistakably shows a basic administration task is realizing when something has been utilized to its fullest, with greatest advantage determined. When this is found, a decent pioneer would realize that right now is an ideal opportunity to stop and proceed onward to more up to date things on the grounds that there are no more comes back to be delighted in. To this, Drucker cases to have prompted his companion Rick Wareen, in these words: Dont mention to me what youre doing, Rick. Mention to me what you quit doing. A fruitful pioneer additionally figures out how to acquire the most extreme trust of his adherents. This doesn't really imply that the adherents are required to like him and concur with him at each point. Rather, Drucker finds the impression of it in the term respectability adherents should realize that their pioneer implies what he says. He ought to take care of business of his words. Thus, authority calls for congruency in convictions, words and activities. What's more, it ought to be predictable as he says: Powerful administration and again this is old insight did not depend on being sharp; it depends essentially on being predictable. The executives doing the things right The board as an organization has risen quickly and has had an enormous effect up until now. It has changed the social and financial structure of the created nations. It has likewise affected nations which took part in these economies as equivalent. Barely any officials perceive the gigantic power that administration has. As per Drucker, the board follows authority. It includes doing what has been called attention to by the pioneer. It's anything but a sack of procedures and stunts. Nor is it a heap of expository instruments, for example, those educated in business colleges. The board, with its victories and issues, is fairly founded on a couple of fundamental standards: The executives is about people. It is a basic, deciding variable for association which instructs individuals to perform with participation, benefit from their qualities and overlook their shortcomings. The board is established in culture since it includes bringing individuals closer in a typical endeavor. Discovering portions of history, custom and culture which can be utilized as the administration components is the fundamental test looked by the directors in creating nations. Promise to shared objectives is fundamental for any undertaking to work effectively. Clear goals characterizing a typical vision is an essential to its prosperity. A supervisor is relied upon to think cautiously and afterward set targets, objectives and the qualities to be shown which he can later embody. When the chief has recognized a balanced statement of purpose and objectives and conveyed it successfully at each degree of the association, there is a decent possibility that the endeavor will succeed. This is on the grounds that all representatives will have an ability to read a compass which will make them focus on a typical target. Development and advancement of the endeavor and every one of its individuals additionally results from the executives. Preparing and improvement ought to be built up on all degrees of organization. Correspondence and individual duty are the premise whereupon any undertaking thrives. All the individuals working in it, from various foundations and having various abilities, ought to be moving in the direction of arriving at a typical point, helping out one another at the same time The amount of yield doesn't delineate the exhibition of the executives and neither that of big business. It is in actuality components like market standing, advancement, profitability, improvement of individuals, quality and budgetary position which give an away from of the exhibition and endurance of a venture. The endeavor is diverse as to its inner parts and exterior. The outcome just exists outwardly, which, for a business would be a fulfilled client. Lying on the inner parts of an endeavor are just its expenses. Chiefs who comprehend these standards and receive them in their strategy will form into accomplishing supervisors. In this manner by doing the correct things, Drucker implied that an ideal supervisor is one who completes things effectively. The executives has various measurements to it and one of these is overseeing individuals. Drucker at first accepted that there must be one all around characterized approach to oversee individuals. In any case, crafted by Abraham H. Maslow in his book Eupsychian Management profoundly impacted him and he turned into a prompt believer. Maslow had given huge proof about how various individuals ought to be overseen in various manners. Contention Comparison It has been a significant captivating discussion with regards to whether administration and the board can coincide. Other comparable inquiries in this setting are worried about which of the two is increasingly significant. Proof recommends that both are indispensable for any association. Furthermore, both can exist together. Actually, the connection among authority and the executives can be portrayed as being related. By grasping the contrast between the two and adhering to their center structure, a pioneer and a director together, can make the work environment substantially more profitable. Stephen Covey shows the contrast among administration and the executives by watching the example of working of a corporate pioneer. He invested the vast majority of his energy overseeing everyday activities. To guarantee greatest creation, he worked with his supervisors, drawing in with them. This was before finding out about authority. When he got illuminated with the entire thought behind authority, he quit dealing with the everyday activities. Rather, he investigated the patterns, analyzed information and started examining ways for his organization to stay serious. So as to accomplish this, he started setting key targets for development. Thus, corporate benefits rose past half inside a year, following quite a while of lazy pace at which the organization developed. This model noticeably shows how initiative reduced when the pioneer was attempting to fill a chiefs place as well. When he set up solid administration with center around the accomplishment of vital goals, his organization hide

Module title Construction of race in polotics Essay

Module title Construction of race in polotics - Essay Example since all the huge inquiries had been settled.1 Fukuyama reasons this doesn't imply that the common pattern of birth, life, demise would end, that significant occasions would not occur anymore, but instead, that there would be no further advancement in the improvement of hidden standards and establishments, since all the huge inquiries had been settled.2 Samuel B Huntington reacted that the extremely greatest inquiry still couldn't seem to be discussed. â€Å"The Clash of Civilizations† is the issue that will be the central issue later on. Huntington states that,â€Å"the extraordinary. divisions among mankind and the commanding wellspring of contention will be cultural.† He recognizes that â€Å"nation states will remain the most remarkable entertainers in world affairs,† however in future their contentions will â€Å"occur among countries and gatherings of civilizations†. Following from these suspicions he infers that â€Å"the separation points between developments will be the fight lines of the future.†3 Fukuyama took the extremely restricted view that the finish of the battle between free enterprise/liberal-popular government and socialism/order economy was done with the disintegration of the Soviet Union and that that was the characterizing strife of the development of human culture. It is either a hyperbolic or a silly proposal. Huntington recommends that the epic battle of the twentieth century has suggest been uprooted by this centurys subject, the conflict and strife between rival societies. â€Å"A progress is a social substance, â€Å" Huntington writes.4 It is a meta-element, â€Å"the most noteworthy social gathering of individuals and the broadest degree of social character individuals have shy of that which recognizes people from other species.†5 The scientific classification of civic establishments thinks about history, language, culture, convention and, generally significant, religion. Huntington likewise calls attention to that there is a goal and an abstract angle to civic establishments. The target components of society are the five

The Fate Of King Oedipus Essay Research free essay sample

The Fate Of King Oedipus Essay, Research Paper Jeremy Todd English 122 4/5/97 The Fate of King Oedipus In # 8220 ; King Oedipus # 8221 ; there comes a point in the show where Oedipus picks up something that plays an of import work all through the show. He learns from a prophet that he will at long last murder his ain Father and sleep with his ain female parent. As one could think about this is a shock to Oedipus, and he does non accept the prophet. In any case, he can non order any of this from go oning on the grounds that it is his fate. He is a casualty of fortunes past his control. Oedipus has no control on the aftereffect of what occurs in his life since his life had just been arranged by the Grecian Gods. All through the entire dramatization there are makes reference to made to a large number of the old Greek Gods, for representation, Apollo, Zeus, Dionysis, and Artemis are talked about rather every now and again. In old Greece the individuals accepted that in the event that anything happened one of the God # 8217 ; s had a ground for it. Every God was identified with one explicit thing like Poseidon being the God of the ocean. They felt that if there was a tidal moving edge or a storm it was on the grounds that Poseidon resented them. This is the balance for my reason that Oedipus had no power over his predetermination. First of completely, when Oedipus is simply an angel his male parent, King Laius of Thebes, is told in a prophet that his ain kid will execute him. In this way, with the comprehension of his wedded lady, Jocasta, the darling # 8217 ; s pess are pinioned, and it # 8217 ; s given to a slave who should go forward it to expire on Mt. Cithaeron. Be that as it may, the slave feels frustrated about the darling, and offers it to an individual shepherd from Corinth. The shepherd from Corinth introduced the angel to the childless King of Corinth, who is Polybus, and he brings him up as his ain. He gives him the name Oedipus, which implies proud pes, in light of his distortion. This shows how the God # 8217 ; s had just proposed for his life to be. He had no way to order what his folks did to him after he was conceived. At that point, 18 mature ages thusly, he leaves Corinth for Delphi, to investigate on his parenthood at the prophet of Apollo. The prophet, however, gives him a horrendous expectation. Which is that he will execute his male parent and sleep with his female parent, which are the two most outlandish offense in a Grecian family unit. In the wake of hearing this he escapes Corinth and caputs toward Thebes accepting to of left his male parent behind in occurrence the prophet was correct. Be that as it may, the God Apollo has somewhat deceived him. Since he accepts that his existent male parent is Polybus, yet he does non yet realize that his male parent is the Lord of Thebes, which is the place he is voyaging. Along the way he meets an old grown-up male driving a wagon of slaves at a topographic point where three streets run into, and he so goes before to murder him. Mature ages go after this occurrence, during which cut he becomes King of Thebes, weds Jocasta ( his female parent ) , and male guardians four children by her. Gradually, Thebes becomes overwhelmed by a repulsive disease, which slaughters enliven creatures, children, and harvests. Oedipus, being the daring male ruler he is, vows to rescue his city. Since plagues are brought about by contamination, and the contamination is brought about by sins the Gods are the solitary one # 8217 ; s who can reveal it # 8217 ; s cause. Oedipus sends his brother by marriage, Creon, to see the prophet at Delphi again, and the God # 8217 ; s answer is that the plague was caused because of an unpunished vendor. That being the outlet of Laius. He so puts a terrible interjection on the vendor whomever it is, thus searches for help from Teiresias, the regarded prophesier. She tells him that he is the slayer, and she alludes to far and away more terrible offenses. Oedipus is incensed at what she lets him know, and feels that Teiresias and Creon have made this up to oust him. Teiresias withdraws with threats of her life while Creon entreat his guilelessness. Oedipus does non trust him, and would hold had him executed if non for Jocasta. Subsequent to hearing that the announcement was the outcome of what a prophet had revealed to them she consoles Oedipus by expressing that what the prophets state is bunk. She so tells a story of how her and Laius were told by one that their kid would execute his male parent. She so reveals to him how the male parent was slaughtered by looters at a topographic point where three streets meet. At that point Oedipus recollects that he executed a grown-up male at a topographic point this way and admirations on the off chance that it was Laius. He understands that this would do him the reviled outlet who is to blame for the epidemic of Thebes. Jocasta begs Oedipus that a witness said it was stealers, and that it could non hold been him. Oedipus needs this source to be found so that his dreads can be let go. During this clasp a dispatch shows up to state Oedipus that his male parent, the King of Corinth, has kicked the bucket and that he is presently the Ruler of Corinth each piece great. Oedipus is disheartened by this occasion, however tells the dispatch that he can non come back to Corinth while his female parent is as yet alive. At that point the messenger endeavors to help himself out by expressing Oedipus that she was non genuinely his female parent, nor was Polybus his male parent. He so discloses to them that Oedipus was given to him by a shepherd from Thebes. Jocasta so understands that Oedipus is truly her kid and surges off. In the interim Oedipus accepts that she is humiliated that her hubby may hold been an undesirable child, and potentially he was the kid of a slave. Finally the Theban shepherd shows up, and this is dry on the grounds that turned out to be the grown-up male who was the witness to the killing of Laius. The shepherd is disinclined to state Oedipus anything. Not until after a hazard of anguish does he state Oedipus that the angel was given to him by Jocasta to be murdered, and that he gave it to the Corinthian out of empathizing. Oedipus presently cognizing reality flurries to happen Jocasta, yet lamentably, it was to late. She had as of now hanged herself. Oedipus so takes the shoulder pins from her dress and gouges his eyes out with them blinding himself. From this misfortune Creon becomes Lord, and in the wake of leting Oedipus to state farewell to his young ladies, orders him into the house, to expect removal at the God # 8217 ; s pleasance. As Oedipus enter the house he is ceaselessly expressing that he ought to be left to perish on Mt. Cithaeron just as the Gods planned for him to. As should be obvious, the God # 8217 ; s played with the lives and feelings of all the characters in the dramatization. While making so Oedipus could in no way order his ain fate. The God # 8217 ; s misdirect him, and did non let him to keep up from his destiny. Oedipus was so a casualty. A survivor of fortunes past his control, and it simply goes to demo that it is incomprehensible for individual to escape their ain fate. 337

Internet Culture Is a Good Thing for Pop Culture Research Paper

Web Culture Is a Good Thing for Pop Culture - Research Paper Example These interchanges are either formal, casual or for reasons for diversion. In spite of the fact that web use is yet to hit all nations on the planet, it registers noteworthy impact on numerous methods of way of life either legitimately or in a roundabout way. To be sure, web use has no age limitations, is to a great extent open, is legitimate, and comes at a sensible cost. Web culture radiates from the utilization ofâ computer systems for amusement and the investigation of different social marvels related with the web like internet games, web based life, and online networks (Hermeking Web). Mainstream society broadly known as mainstream society is the mix everything being equal, thoughts, and perspectives that go astray from the normal culture in the general public (Danesi 1-7). It agrees with the Western culture of the ahead of schedule to mid-twentieth century and that of the late twentieth and mid 21st century. It includes the parts of public activity that are increasingly prevai ling in the general population. It is for sure, characterized by social cooperations between individuals in their ordinary exercises in type of styles of dress, the utilization of slang, welcoming customs and the nourishments that individuals eat (Philosophy Now Web). It exhibits a great deal of impact from the media and as such by web culture. Previously, mainstream society spread through print, radio, motion pictures, or TV. Be that as it may, the effect of media like TV and radio is diminishing at huge rate following the development of the web culture, which is assuming control over the spread of mainstream society. Without a doubt, there is an immediate relationship between's web culture and mainstream society with mainstream society drawing numerous advantages from web culture. Web culture adds to changes in community commitment in the USA (University of California, Berkeley Web). It can similarly work as a space of new divisions of work between common society authoritative ent ertainers and lay activists. One of the most significant components of web that enormously bolsters mainstream society is the capacity to download records. Certainly, popular music, patterns, and social occasions can leak to an enormous pop populace through huge sharing of documents. For example, it is feasible for popular fans to download music recordings promptly their preferred craftsmen discharge them. Also, web makes it feasible for pop specialists to take an interest on mainstream society exercises without being genuinely present. For example, a large number of craftsmen can take an interest continuously when unique mainstream society occasions are held. In reality, the noteworthy increment in web infiltration and high speeds makes spilling conceivable and along these lines, ready to stream recordings as pop occasions occur. This has been an incredible lift to mainstream society, which has additionally recorded an exceptional move to web connection. One significant thing about web culture that makes it critical to mainstream society is its commitment the quick spread of pop way of life. Pop way of life, particularly inclines in dressing, can contact numerous individuals all the while and momentarily. In a perfect world, web has additionally been a stage in which, mainstream society has likewise had the option to scatter to various pieces of the world. This has been a lift to expanded reception of mainstream society to numerous individuals over the world. The utilization of the web have in a major manner prompted the spread of more data on mainstream society the greatest number of individuals would now be able to get to this data over the web easily and no limitations. In any case, mainstream society doesn't really rely upon

How and Why You Should Maintain Friendships

How and Why You Should Maintain Friendships Stress Management Relationship Stress Print How and Why You Should Maintain Friendships By Elizabeth Scott, MS twitter Elizabeth Scott, MS, is a wellness coach specializing in stress management and quality of life, and the author of 8 Keys to Stress Management. Learn about our editorial policy Elizabeth Scott, MS Updated on May 21, 2019 Robert Daly/Getty Images More in Stress Management Relationship Stress Effects on Health Management Techniques Situational Stress Job Stress Household Stress Friends add a wonderful dimension to our lives: they help us celebrate the good times, and they help us make it through the tough times. Having a strong, supportive social network has been associated with lower levels of stress, increased longevity, and greater levels of happiness. Unfortunately, conflicted relationships can bring significant amounts of stress to our lives, and the stress can be ongoing.  Learning how to minimize that type of stress while maintaining as much closeness as possible can be difficult, but dealing with volatile relationships can be even more difficult.  Therefore, time spent focusing on how to maximize the positive aspects of your relationships and minimizing the toll of the conflict is time well spent. The following resources can help you to build stronger support systems among your friendship group and minimize the stress you experience from unnecessary drama.   How to Create Supportive Relationships All social support is not created equal. Here is what you need to know to create mutually supportive, enduring, truly healthy friendships that will bring you support, the opportunity for personal growth, and stress management benefits. Find out why its important to develop listening skills, your intuition, assertiveness, and other skills that can pay off with increased social support, healthy friendships, and a sense of belonging. How to Cultivate a Supportive Circle of Friends Numerous research studies have shown that supportive friendships can provide emotional help during stressful times and even improve our health and increase longevity. Learn the numerous stress management and health benefits a circle of friends provides, and discover how to begin expanding your number of supportive friendships. Assertive Communication Assertiveness is a skill that not only helps with marriage and interpersonal relationships but all of your relationships. It can reduce stress and help you attain more balance at home, at work, and in life. Assertiveness establishes healthy boundaries and reduces stress for everyone. Learn more about assertiveness, aggressiveness, and passivity, and see how assertiveness training can improve your life.   The key to assertiveness isnt to assert your rights more, but rather to assert your rights in a non-timid but non-aggressive way that shows respect for yourself as well as the other person. Letting Go of Relationships That Stress You Letting go of a relationship is never easy. We gain so much from friends and loved ones, that we often hold onto relationships that are no longer good for us out of habit or loyalty. Read why negative relationships can actually harm you, and find a step-by-step plan to help you decide where to draw the line in letting go of a relationship that is no longer good for you. How to Improve Your Relationships With Healthy Communication Social support is a great stress reliever, but relationships can also be a major source of stress. Conflict within a relationship can create emotional stress as well as new obstacles and challenges to deal with in your life if conflict within a relationship spreads to create conflict in several relationships or within a group. As conflict is virtually inevitable in any relationship, here are ten important tips on managing conflict in a respectful way that yields positive results, rather than damaging your connection and causing additional stress. The Ten Worst Ways to Handle Conflict Conventional wisdom (and research) says that good communication can improve relationships, increasing intimacy, trust, and support. The converse is also true: poor communication can weaken bonds, creating mistrust and even contempt! Here are some examples of negative and even destructive attitudes and communication patterns that can really mess up a relationship. How many of these sound like something you’d do?

The Old Man And The Sea Book Review Assignment Paper - 550 Words

The Old Man And The Sea Book Review Assignment Paper (Book Review Sample) Content: Students NameProfessors NameDateThe Old Man and the Sea The Old Man and the SeaSummary The old man and the sea is a seemingly simple book featuring the life of a poor old experienced fisherman Santiago who for 84 days in a row had not had any catch. He however still went fishing everyday and ensured his fishing lines were in line. On the 85th day of his dry spree he heads further into the Gulf of Mexico where he never went before and here he hooks a giant marlin (Rama Rao, 56). Unable to pull the fish into his skiff he held on the onto line for three days suffering but enduring deep cuts on his back with the struggles of the fish to unhook itself. He however kills it with his harpoon after it gives up and lashes it into his boat and heads home with his hard-won trophy. Sharks however eat the marlin leaving only the skeleton which is the only thing he gets home with (Hemingway, 87).Conflict of the StoryThough simple, the old man and the sea this a life challenging book which redefines success and victory. Success is too often used to indicate the value of a person but how they achieve it is not considered. Whether or not they struggled and retained their dignity to achieve it or they did wrongs and used shortcuts to achieve it, it is still considered success. This book therefore has the idea of showing that proper success should be earned through honest means, determination and perseverance while taking no shortcuts or depending on mere luck.How the Book Relates to A Persons Everyday LifeThis book has multiple life lessons that one should and must learn from. First, is to not depend on luck. Santiago says that it is better to be lucky, but he would rather be exact, and then luck finds him. Depending on luck is not convenient as the luck might not always find you. One should work to achieve what they what so that with or without luck they achieve their goals.Secondly, a man should be determined and perseverant without complaint. Santiago went to t he sea every morning while shivering in the cold. He never complained but endured it all, determined and knowing one day he would make a fine catch. In life therefore one should endure the struggles and keep focused on what they want with the dream of achieving it.Thirdly, the book brings out that one should not boast. Santiago despite his experience in fishing does not boast about it to his young friend Manolin who insists of what a great fisherman he was. He remains humble admitting there are better fishermen than him (Hemingway, 67). One should therefore not boast in life but we should be humble in our success and determined through our struggles.It also relays the message that one should take inspiration from others. It is the great Joe DiMaggio that gives Santiago inspiration to keep going. People should therefore look for a role model or mentor in life so they have someone to look up to on order to keep them going.Finally and most importantly, the book sends the message that o ne s...

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Design and planning of 2g, 3g and channel modelling of 4g - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 28 Words: 8357 Downloads: 6 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Cellular Communication In this chapter, all the background knowledge which is required for this project has been discussed. 1.1 Cell The area covered by single BTS(base transceiver station) is known as cell. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Design and planning of 2g, 3g and channel modelling of 4g" essay for you Create order 1.1.1 Shape of cell The shape of cell depends upon the coverage of the base station. The actual coverage of the base station is called footprint and is found with the help of measurements from the field. We can make our calculations easier by using the shape of circle noting that there would not be spaces between them. As, the purpose is to provide coverage to each and every subscriber. But if there are spaces between the coverage areas then the person in that specific area will not be able to get any coverage. To cover the problem of interleaving spaces, the shapes that can be used theoretically are: Square Triangle Hexagon But in selection criteria one thing must be kept in mind that every person within a cell get same coverage specially the person at the edges of the cell. So hexagon is the shape among these three choices with largest coverage area. Its coverage area and shape is closest to the circle and it helps tessellate. Omnidirectional antenna is used in the center of it, and if we want to use sectored directional antenna then it must be used at any three corners of it. 1.1.2 Area of the Cell The area of a cell with radius R is shown in figure 1.1(a), is given by: 1.2 Frequency planning While developing the cellular system, it has limited capacity due to the given bandwidth. So, in order to solve this problem Cellular Systems have to depends on an intelligent and more use of channels through out the area. Every cellular base station is alloted a group of different radio channels to be used in a cell. Base station in the adjacent cells use completely different frequencies. For this purpose antennas are used such that their power may get limited within the cell. In this way the allocated frequencies maybe reused in different cells again. The process of allocating and selecting channel groups for all the base stations in a system is known as frequency reuse or frequency planning. We use two types of antennas: Omnidirectional antenna Sectored directional antenna Omnidirectional antennas are used in the cells which are centrally excited and sectored directional antennas are used in the edge excite cells. To understand the concept of frequency reuse, let us say that S are the total no. of duplex channels available for use, k number of channels given to each cell i.e. kS, N are the no. of cells in which S channels are divided. The total number of channels is denoted by: S=kN (1.2) Where N is no. of cells which uses the complete set of available frequencies known as cluster frequency reuse factor (1.3) Each cell is in the cluster is assigned of the available channels. The radio frequency from 3Hz to 3000GHz are separated into 12 bands, as shown in the table. Frequency spectrum has different propagation characteristics. As far as concerned to the mobile communication, we only pay attention to the UHF spectrum. 1.2.1 Cluster size(N) If we use N large (a large cluster), the ratio of the cell radius and the distance between co-channel decreases, which causes weaker co-channel interference. But if N is smaller, by keeping the cell size same then we more clusters are needed to cover an area. Hence the capacity is increased. So if we use N larger then the quality of voice is good but the capacity is less and vice versa. 1.3 Interference Interference is one of the major factor in the capacity and performance of a cellular network. The interference is due to a call in the neighbouring cell, another base station operating in the same frequency. Interference causes crosstalk and noise. There are two types of interference. Adjacent channel interference Co-channel interference 1.3.1 Adjacent channel interference Adjacent channel interference results from the signals which are side by side in frequencies to the desires signal. Adjacent channel interference is caused by wrong filtering, like incomplete filtering of not wanted modulation in frequency modulation (FM) systems, not proper tuning, or poor control of frequency. It causes problem. Adjacent channel interference can be reduced by careful channel assignment, filtering and power control within a cell. 1.3.2 Co-channel interference Co-channel cells are the cell which use the same set of frequencies. For example, in the figure 1.2 all the letter A are the co-channel cell because they use the same set of frequencies. Interference due to the co-channel cells is called co-channel interference. It can be reduced by using greater value of N(cluster size). If D is the distance between the co-channel cells and R is radius of the cell, then by using greater value of N the ratio between D to R is increased hence reducing co-channel interference. The relation can b written as: 1.4 Improving coverage and capacity The number of channels assigned to a cell became insufficiently as the demand of wireless system increases. To provide more channels per coverage, some techniques are introduced which improve the coverage and capacity. These techniques are: Cell splitting Sectoring Microcell zone concept 1.4.1 Cell Splitting Cell splitting is the process of dividing a cell into smaller cells. In this process we reduce the antenna height and power of the base station. Cell splitting increases the capacity by increasing frequency reuse factor. In cell splitting Channel assignment techniques remain the same. SIR remains the same Trunking inefficiency do not get suffer. Trunking efficiency is the measure of the number of users which can be offered a particular Grade of service with the specific configuration of the channels. The grade of service (GOS) is the measure of the ability to access a trunked system during the busy hours. The radius of the new cell is reduce to half. So power is also reduced. 1.4.2 Sectoring Sectoring uses directional antennas for controlling the interferences and frequency reuse of channels. The co-channel interference is reduced and thus increasing system performance by using directional antenna. A cell is normally divided into three 120 sectors or six 60sectors. When sectoring is used, the channels used in a particular cell are broken into sectored groups and are used only within a particular sector. The no. of channels get divided into sectored groups, so the trunking efficiency is reduced. In sectoring SIR is improved by reducing interference and trunking efficiency is reduced. Handoff increased in sectoring. The s/I improvement allows to decrease the cluster size N in order to improve the frequency reuse, and thus the system capacity. Further improvements in s/I is achieved by downtilting the sector antennas. 1.4.3 Microcell Zone Concept Microcell Zone concept distributes the coverage of a cell and extends the cell boundry to hard to reach places. It maintains the S/I and trunking efficiency, and increases the coverage and capacity of an area. 1.5 Radio wave propagation Radio waves propagate through different channels and by different ways to reach the MS(Mobile Station). It also depends upon the speed of the wave. The propagation of radio waves depends into two types: Large scale propagation Small scale propagation(Fading) 1.5.1 Large scale propagation The model predicts that the average signal strength for all transmitter-receiver (TR) distance on a scale known as large scale propogation model. 1.5.2 Small scale propagation The models that predicts the rapid fluctuation of the received signal strength over a short distance known as small scale propagation model or fading. 1.5.3 Free Space Propagation Model The free space propagation model is used when the transmitter and receiver have line of sight (LOS) between them to predict the received signal strength. Where Pr = received power. Pt = transmitted power, Gt and Gr = transmitter and receiver antenna gain, do= T-R separation, L = system loss factor = wavelength. 1.6 Propagation Mechanisms The propagation mechanisms which effect propagation are: Reflection Scattering Diffraction Reach directly (in case of Line of Sight) If there is line of sight signal reach the Mobile station directly and signal power is very strong. 1.6.1 Reflection Reflection occurs when an electromagnetic wave falls upon an object which is large as compare to the wavelength of the wave. It occurs from buildings, walls, surface of earth etc. 1.6.2 Diffraction Diffraction happens when the path between the transmitters and receivers is disturbed by a surface with sharp edges. It source is any sharp edge object. Knife edge diffraction Model is used for diffraction. 1.6.3 Scattering Scattering occurs when an electromagnetic wave falls upon an object which has small dimension as compared to the wavelength of the wave. Scattering occurs due to small objects, rough surfaces or any irregularities. Objects such as lamp posts, trees scatter the radio waves. Radar Cross Section Model is used for sectoring. 1.7 Small Scale Fading Fading is the fluctuation in the received signal strength over very short distance. Fading is due to reception of different versions of same signals. Following are the factors which influence Small-Scale Fading are: Multipath propagation: Due to absence of LOS signal follows the multipath due to reflection, diffraction, scattering. Speed of the mobile: Fading also accurs due to the movement of the mobile as the signal strength changes. Speed of the surrounding objects: Fading also occurs due to the movement of mobile, if the speed of the surrounding object is much faster then the speed of the mobile then it also induces Doppler shift. The transmission BW (bandwidth) of the signal: The received signal is distorted if the transmitted signal bandwidth is greater than the bandwidth of the channel. 1.8 GSM The first GSM network was launched in 1991. The GSM network was structured hierarchically. It consists of one administrative region, which is assigned to MSC. Each administrative region is consists of at least one location area (LA). LA is also called the visited area. An LA consists of several cell groups. Each cell group is assigned to a base station controller (BSC). Cells of one BSC may belong to different LAs. GSM distinguishes explicitly between users and identifiers. The user identity associates with a MS by mans of personal chip cards, the subscriber identity module (SIM). The SIM is portable and transferable MSs. The mobile Roaming number is a temporary location-dependent ISDN number. It is assigned by a locally responsible Visited Location Number (VLR). The GSM network can defined into four major parts. Mobile station (MS). Base station Sub-system (BSS). Network and switching Sub-system (NSS). Operation and support Sub-system (OSS). 1.8.1 Mobile station A mobile station consists of two parts. Mobile equipment and terminal. Subscriber identity module (SIM). 1.8.2 THE Terminal There are different types of terminal distinguished principally by their power and application: The fixed terminals are installed in cars. The GSM portable terminals can be used in the vehicles. The hand held terminals have experienced a biggest success depending upon their weight and volume, which are decreasing continuously. These terminals can emit power of 2 w. The evolution of technologies decreases the maxpower to 0.8 watts. 1.8.3 SIM Sim is a smart card which identifies the terminal. Using the sim card in the mobile, the user can access all the services provided by the provider. Terminal does not operate without the sim,. Personal identification number(PIN) helps protect sim. 1.9 The Base Station Subsystem The BSS connects the MS to Network Switching Sub-system. It is incharge of transmission as well as reception. The BSS is further divided into two main parts. Base transceiver station (BTS) or base station. Base Station Controller(BSC). 1.9.1 The Base Transceiver Station The BTS deals with the transceivers and antennas which are used in each cell of a network. BTS is usually in the center of cell. Size of the cell is defined by its transmitting power. Each BTS has one to sixteen transceivers which depends upon the density of users. 1.10 The Base Station Controller The BSC controllers the group of BTS and manages radio resources. The BSC is incharge of handover, frequency hoping and exchange of radio frequency power level of BTSs. 1.11 The Network and Switching Subsystem It is to manage the communication between mobile and other users, such as ISDN users, telephony users. It store the information in data bases about the subscriber and manage their mobility. 1.12 The Mobile Services Switching Center (MSC) It is the central component of the NSS. Network Switching Functions are performed by the MSC. It provides connection to more other networks. Chapter 2 Planning One of the important phase of the project in which all the detail information is gathered about different areas and their population including city boundary, market analysis and roads are the key features in these details are city profiling. This phase is divided into different tasks. 2.1 Lahore City Map First is to get the detailed map of the Lahore city, which includes all the aspects related to the project. These are following:- Area division Dense area Sub-urban area open area Boundaries of City 2.2 Boundary Marking The project Radio Frequency Planning is basically the frequency planning of the city, not to its belongings areas. The exact boundary of the city is marked in order to concentrate on the marked area. 2.3 Population Population of the city plays an important role in the frequency planning. It helps a lot in the estimations and assumptions. The population of the city is around 10 million. 2.4 Estimations and Assumptions This part is mainly concerned with the frequency planning. When a new telecommunication company comes in the market, it estimates it users. This estimation is done with respect to the total population of the particular area. The estimations are done to estimate the users on urban, suburban and open areas. 2.5 Area Division The area division depends upon the percentage of population in an area and type of area as it is the important factor in the site as wall as frequency planning. The Lahore city is divided into three major areas. 2.5.1 Urban Area Urban area is an area which is surrounded by more density of humans and structures in comparison to the areas surrounding it 2.5.2 Sub-Urban Area Suburban area is districts located either inside a town or citys outer premises or just outside its limits. 2.5.3 Open Area Open area is partially settled places away from the large cities. Such areas are different from more intensively settled urban and suburban areas. There are less population as compared to urban and sub-urban areas. 2.6 Site Planning 2.6.1 Map of Lahore 2.6.2 Urban Area 2.6.3 Sub-Urban Area 2.6.4 Open Area HATA Model for Urban Area = Path loss in Urban Areas in decibel (dB) = Height of base station in meters (m) = Height of mobile station Antenna in meters (m) = Frequency of Transmission in megahertz (MHz). = Distance between the base station and mobile stations in kilometers To calculate radius of a site of Urban Area For Downlink =-75 dBm(this power covers both indoor and outdoor coverage range -70 to -90 dBm ) = 35 m(Average height of antenna in city is 30 to 200 m) = 1.5 m = 13 dBm = 46 dBm (Max Power transmitted by Base Station) = Cable loss = 2.01 dBm = 945 Mhz (Downlink frequency 935 to 960 MHz) = Combine Loss= 5.5 dBm Putting in HATA equation For Uplink = -102 dbm(Min Power received by Base Station) = 29.1 dBm (Max transmitted power mobile) = 900 MHz (890 to 915 MHz) Putting in HATA equation We will be using d=0.90 Km as it covers both Uplink and Downlink. For Sub-Urban Area For Downlink For downlink of Suburban parameters are same as for Urban. For Uplink Uplink parameters are also same as Urban Areas We will be using d=2.32 Km for Suburban Area. For Open Areas Downlink For downlink parameters are same as Urban Areas For Uplink We will be using d=8 for Open Areas. We will be using 65 degree directional Antennas. Angle between 2 consecutive lobes is 120 degree. r=Radius of lobes For Full Lobe For All 3 Lobes Area of site in Urban Area of site in Suburban Area of site in Fields(Open Area) Calculations for Number of BTS 2.7 Frequency Planning One of the breakthrough in solving the problem of congestion and user capacity is the cellular concept. Cellular radio systems rely on reuse of channels throughout a coverage region. A group of radio channels are allocated to each cellular base station to be used within a area known as cell. Different channels are assingned in the adjacent cells of the base station. The same group of channels can be used by limiting the coverage area, within the boundaries of a cell to cover different levels, within tolerable limits. Frequency planning is the design process of selecting, allocating or assinging channel group stations within a system. The theoretical calculations, and fixed size of a cell is assumed, that can differentiate no of channels in a cell and from that can differentiate cluster size and will differ, the capacity of the cellular system. There is a trade between the interference abd capacity in theoretical calculation as if we reduce the cluster size more cells are needed to cover the area and more capacity. But from another perceptive small cluster size causes the ratio between cell radius, and the distance between co-channels cells to increase, leading to stronger co-channels interference. In practical calculations, a fixed no of channels are allocated to a cell. One channel per lobe 3channels are allocated to a cell. The capacity can be increased by allocating 2 channels per lobe or 6 channels per cell. But after allocating channels once, they will remain fixed for the whole cellular system and frequency planning. Now as with the fixed no of channels as per cell, the capacity will remain constant of the system and we can achieve weaker co-channel interference, by having a small cluster size(N). A cluster size of 7 is selected in this project, which is also discussed. So in later practical world , there is not a trade-off between capacity and co-channel interference. 2.7.1 Calculations The city of Lahore is divided into 120 cells. We take 3 channels per cell that gives us 1 cell = 3 channels Reuse factor = 1/N = 1/7 Which means that frequency can be reused after a cluster of 7 cells. That gives us the total of 7 x 3 =21+ 2(guard cells)=23 channels We will be using 23 channels with a reuse factor of 1/7. 2.8 Implementation in GAIA Figure 2.1 is a snapshot of GAIA planning tool showing us the structure of an urban area. This figure illustrates the urban boundary which we calculate during city profiling. It also shows the antenna system used, in this case 3 sectors with 120 degree azimuth spacing is used. Antennas are installed on the rooftop of buildings or houses due to dense population and to provide a better coverage. Figure 2.2 shows us the planning of a Sub-Urban area with sites more distance apart as population is less, compared to urban. In Sub-Urban 3 sector cell is used which is similar to the ones used in Urban Figure 2.3 shows us the coverage planning of a network in an open area. Here the sites are further apart as open area has least population. 3 sector cell is used with the antennas installed above a steel structure for better coverage. Figure 2.4 shows the sector wise cell area of the sites in the urban area of the city in GAIA, which can be differentiated with the help of different color for each sector, also it shows the coverage area of every site. We have used grid approach in this planning, it is the most widely used and most effective technique used theoretically and practically. Figure 2.5 shows the cell boundary of sites in Sub-urban area of the city. Figure 2.6 shows the cell boundary in the open area of the city. Figure 2.7 illustrates the signal strength in the urban area of the city. Because of the dense population the signal power is strong throughout to ensure high quality calls to the subscribers with minimum interference and call drop. Figure 2.8 shows the 2G signal strength in the Sub-urban areas where population density is low and so the power required is less as compared to urban areas. Figure 2.9 shows the serving signal strength in open area. The signal is the weakest as there is the least number of people in open area. CHAPTER 3 FUNDAMENTALS OF 3G 3.1 INTRODUCTION The Universal Mobile Telephony System (UMTS) or 3G as it is known is the next big thing in the world of mobile telecommunications. It provides convergence between mobile telephony broadband access and Internet Protocol (IP) backbones. This introduces very variable data rates on the air interface, as well as the independence of the radio access infrastructure and the service platform. For users this makes available a wide spectrum of circuit-switched or packet data services through the newly developed high bit rate radio technology named Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA). The variable bit rate and variety of traffic on the air interface have presented completely new possibilities for both operators and users, but also new challenges to network planning and optimization. The success of the technology lies in optimum utilization of resources by efficient planning of the network for maximum coverage, capacity and quality of service. This part of our project aims to detail method of UMTS Radio Network (UTRAN) Planning. The new technologies and services have brought vast changes within the network planning; the planning of a 3G network is now a complex balancing act between all the variables in order to achieve the optimal coverage, capacity and Quality of Service simultaneously. 3.2 WCDMA In UMTS access scheme is DS-CDMA (Direct Sequence CDMA) which involves that a code sequence is directly used to modulate the transmitted radio signal with information which is spreaded over approximately 5 MHz bandwidth and data rate up to 2 Mbps. Every user is assigned a separate code/s depending upon the transaction, thus separation is not based on frequency or time but on the basis of codes. The major advantage of using WCDMA is that there is no plan for frequency re-use. 3.3 NODE B Node B functions as a RBS (Radio Base Station) and provides radio coverage to a geographical area, by providing physical radio link between the UE (User Equipment) and the network. Node B also refer the codes that are important to identify channels in a WCDMA system. It contains the RF transceiver, combiner, network interface and system controller, timing card, channel card and backplane. The Main Functions of Node B are: Closed loop power control CDMA Physical Channel coding Modulation /Demodulation Micro Diversity Air interface Transmission /Reception Error handling Both FDD and TDD modes are supported by Single node B and it can be co-located with a GSM BTS to reduce implementation costs. The conversion of data from the Radio interface is the main task of Node B. It measures strength and quality of the connection. The Node B participates in power control and is also responsible for the FDD softer handover. On the basis of coverage, capacity and antenna arrangement Node B can be categorizes as Omni directional and Sectorial: OTSR (Omni Transmitter Sector Receiver) STSR (Sector Transmitter Sector Receiver) 3.3.1 OTSR (Omni Transmit Sector Receive) The OTSR configuration uses a single (PA) Power Amplifier, whose output is fed to a transmit splitter. The power of the RF signal is divided by three and fed to the duplexers of the three sectors, which are connected to sectorized antennas. 3.3.2 STSR (Sectorial Transmit Sector Receive) The STSR configuration uses three (PA) Power Amplifier, whose output is fed directly to the duplexers of the three sectors, which are connected to sectorized antennas. Node B serve the cells which depend on sectoring. 3.4 ACCESS MODES 3.4.1 FDD (Frequency Division Duplex) A duplex method whereby uplink and downlink transmissions use two separated radio frequencies. In the FDD, each downlink and uplink uses the different frequency band. 3.4.2 TDD (Time Division Duplex) It is a method in which same frequency is used for the transmission of downlink and uplink by using synchronized time intervals. Time slots are divided into transmission and reception part in the physical channel. 3.4.3 Frequency Bands MODE UP-LINK MHz DOWN- LINK MHz CHANNEL SPACING CHANNEL RASTER FDD 1920-1980 2110-2170 5MHz 200KHz TDD 1900-1920 2010-2025 1900-1920 2010-2025 5MHz 200KHz 3.4 CELLULAR CONCEPT The UMTS network is third generation of cellular radio network which operate on the principle of dividing the coverage area into zones or cells (node B in this case), each of which has its own set of resources or transceivers (transmitters /receivers) to provide communication channels, which can be accessed by the users of the network. A cell is created by transmitting numerous number of low power transmitters. Cell size is determined by the different power levels according to the subscriber demand and density within a specific region. Cells can be added to accommodate growth. Communication in a cellular network is full duplex, which is attained by sending and receiving messages on two different frequencies. In order to increase the frequency reuse capability to promote spectrum efficiency of a system, it is desirable to reuse the same channel set in two cells which are close to each other as possible, however this increases the probability of co-channel interference . The performance of cellular mobile radio is affected by co channel interference. Co-channel interference, when not minimized, decreases the ratio of carrier to interference powers (C/I) at the periphery of cells, causing diminished system capacity, more frequent handoffs, and dropped calls. Usually cells are represented by a hexagonal cell structure, to demonstrate the concept, however, in practice the shape of cell is determined by the local topography. 3.4.1 Types of Cell The 3G network is divided on the basis of size of area covered. Micro cell the area of intermediate coverage, e.g., middle of a city. Pico cell the area of smallest coverage, e.g., a hot spot in airport or hotel. Macro cell the area of largest coverage, e.g., an complete city. 3.5 FADING Fading is another major constraint in wireless communication. All signals regardless of the medium used, lose strength this is known as attenuation/fading. There are three types of fading: Pathloss Shadowing Rayleigh Fading 3.5.1 Pathloss Pathloss occurs as the power of the signal steadily decreases over distance from the transmitter. 3.5.2 Shadowing Shadowing or Log normal Fading is causes by the presence of building, hills or even tree foilage. 3.5.3 Rayleigh Fading Rayleigh Fading or multipath fading is a sudden decrease in signal strength as a result of interference between direct and reflected signal reaching the mobile station. 3.6 HANDOVER IN CDMA The term handover or handoff refers to the process of transferring data session or an ongoing call from channel to channel connected to the core network to another. The handover is performed due to the mobility of a user that can be served in another cell more efficiently. Handover is necessary to support mobility of users. Handover are of following types (also known as handoff): Hard Handover Soft Handover Softer Handover 3.6.1Hard.Handover In Hard handover the old radio links in the UE are dispose of before the new radio links takes place. It can be either seamless or non-seamless. In seamless hard handover, the handover is not detected by the user. A handover that needs a change of the carrier frequency is a hard handover. 3.6.2Soft.Handover Soft handover takes place when cells on the same frequency are changed. Atleast one radio link is always kept to the UTRAN in the removal and addition of the radio links. It is opperated by means of macro diversity in which many radio links are active. 3.6.3Softer.handover It is one of the important case of soft handover which describe the removal and addition of the radio links which is being belonged by the same Node B. Macro diversity can be performed in the NODE B with maximum ratio combining in softer handover. There are inter-cell and intra-cell handover. Handover 3G 2G (e.g. handover to GSM) FDD inter-frequency hard handover TDD/FDD handover (change of cell) TDD/TDD handover FDD/TDD handover (change of cell) Handover 2G 3G (e.g. handover from GSM 3.7 CODES IN CDMA CDMA uses a technology called the spread-spectrum. In spread-spectrum, the generated signals are spread in the frequency domain. These signals are secure, less affective to noise and resistant to jamming. Spread-spectrum allows multiple users to communicate using same physical channel. This gives the communicated data a much higher data bandwidth than it usually has. Spread-spectrum uses a special coding scheme in which every user is assigned a specific code for communication and in a channel, only users associated with a particular can communicate. CDMA system has asymmetric links (i.e. the forward and reverse links have different link structures).The differences ranges from the modulation scheme to error control methods. In addition, each link uses different codes to channels individual user. The forward link uses Walsh codes, while reverse link uses Pseudorandom Noise (PN) codes for channelization. PN(Pseudorandom Noise) Codes Walsh Codes 3.7.1 Walsh Codes In CDMA all the users are transmitted in same RF band. In order to avoid mutual interference on the forward link, Walsh codes are used to separate individual users while they simultaneously occupy the same RF band. They provide orthogonality in a cell among all the users. Different Walsh codes are assingned by the base station among every user traffic channel. 64 codes are available for IS-95. For pilot code, code 0 is used and for synchronization code 32 is used. Control channel uses the codes 1 though 7, and the remaining codes are available for traffic channels. At the same time Codes 2 through 7 can be used for traffic channels. They are derived from Haddamard matrices. They also have a outstanding quality that in their family codes are orthogonal to each other and can also create channelization in 1.25 MHz band. They are used to spread over the reverse channel and for modulation and are also used to create anorthogonal modulation on the forward link. They create channels in CDMA and are the backbone of CDMA systems. 3.7.2 PN CODES The forwad link of IS-95 CDMA has pilot and sync channels to aid synchronization, the reverse link does not have pilot and sync channels.The mobile stations transmits at will, and no attempt is made to synchronize their transmission. Thus Walsh cods cannot be used for the reverse link. The incoherent nature of the reverse link calls for the use of another class of codes, PN codes, for channelization. Codes used by CDMA are known as Pseudo Noise (PN) code. A PN code is a binary sequence in random, consisting of 1s and 0s, which are produced by an algorithm making it unique for every user. It can be reused in different manner by different users. These PN codes are used to encode and decode the users signal in CDMA. This helps users to avoid crosstalk, interference and noise as only the signals with special PN codes are received while others appear as noise to the system. These codes have low cross-correlation factor and codes are unique for every user. These codes provide a strong shield against jamming and data theft. The form of carrier modulation we can use is Amplitude Modulation. However in practice Phase Shift Keying (PSK) is usually used. The process of modulating the carrier with the PN code is called spreading. PN CODE GENERATION A usual way of producing a PN code is by using a shift-register. The shift register generators produce a sequence depending on the number of stages and the initial conditions. A shift-register of length n has a period given by the equation: 3.8 CDMA LOGICAL CHANNELS The communications between the mobile and the base station takes place using specific channels. A channel is a stream data designated for a specific use or person and is separated by a code. A channel may be a voice data or overhead control data. There are two types of channels: Forward link channels Reverse link channels 3.8.1 Forward link channels The Forward CDMA channel is from cell-to-mobile direction or the downlink path. It consists of: Pilot channel Paging channel Sync channel Traffic channels 3.8.1.1 PILOT CHANNEL Pilot Channel is a reference channel which the mobile station uses for acquisition, timing and as a phase reference for coherent demodulation. It is transmitted at all times by each base station on each active CDMA frequency. Each mobile station tracks this signal continuously. 3.8.1.2 PAGING CHANNEL Sync Channel carries a single, repeating message that conveys the timing and system configuration information to the mobile station in the CDMA system. 3.8.1.3 SYNC CHANNEL Paging Channels primary purpose is to send out pages, that is, notifications of incoming calls, to the mobile stations. The base station uses them to transmit system overhead information and mobile station- specific messages. 3.8.1.4 TRAFFIC CHANNEL Forward Traffic Channels are code channels used to assign call (usually voice) and signaling traffic to individual users. 3.8.2 Reverse link channels The Reverse CDMA channel is from mobile-to-cell direction of communication or the uplink path. Access channel Traffic channel 3.8.2.1 ACCESS CHANNEL Access Channels are used by mobile stations to initiate communication with the base station or to respond to Paging Channel messages. The Access Channel is used for short signaling message exchanges such as call originations, responses to pages, and registrations. 3.8.2.2 TRAFFIC CHANNEL Reverse Traffic Channels are used by individual users during their actual calls to transmit traffic from a single mobile station to one or more base stations. 3.9 POWER CONTROL IN CDMA Power control ensures that each user in the network receives and transmits just enough energy to convey information while causing minimal interference to other users. For the WCDMA standard, power control is applied in both the uplink and downlink. Power control helps to reduce co-channel interference, increasing the cell capacity by decreasing interference and prolonging the battery life by using a minimum transmitter power. With appropriate power control, the CDMA offers high capacity in comparison to FDMA and TDMA. Power control also known, as Transmit Power Control (TPC) is a significant design problem in CDMA systems. Power control manages problems mentioned above by constantly controlling the received power of the mobiles and continuously adjust its transmit power in order to achieve some predefined performance level such as SINR (signal to interference noise ratio). 3.9.1 REQUIEREMENT OF POWER CONTROL The transmit power for each user is reduced to limit interference, so, the power control is needed to maintain the required Eb/No (signal to noise ratio) for a acceptable call quality. On both the links the dynamic power control is also required to limit transmitted power as to maintain the quality of link under all conditions, mobile battery life and life span of BTS power amplifiers can be prolonged. To achieve the maximum capacity every users Eb/No should be at minimum level, needed for acceptable channel performance. Chapter 4 PLANNING OF 3G 4.1 CITY PROFILING City profiling in 3g is the same as done in 2G and the area calculations are the same as done earlier. 4.2 Link Budgeting of 3G We have used Cost 231 Hata model for planning of 3G network. The values used are estimated values which are tested in the field practically and are most effective. This model is the most reliable model which is being used in the field till now with some amendments which have been used also. The equation of Cost 231 Hata model is as follows: Calculations of 3G are as follows As the height of mobile station is 1.5m a(hm) becomes 0. Area of site as calculated in 2G was Now as r = 0.84 Number of BTS required The area of Urban as calculated earlier was 136 sq km. so the number of BTS required Number of BTS = 136/1.19 =115 Chapter 5 CHANNEL MODELING OF 4G NETWORKS 5.1 INTRODUCTION OF 4G 4G technology is the very latest and ultra fast technology and it is getting more attention day by day even though this technology is still at its initial stages. 4G technology aims to provide fastest speed to all users, provide data transfer rate up to 100 Mbps while for its stationary users, it aims to the highest speed of 1 Gbps. 4G Technology is basically an extension in 3G technology with more Data rate and services offered in 3G. The expectation in the 4G is the high quality audio and video streaming over Internet Protocol. If 4G implemented correctly, will truly protects global roaming, super high speed connectivity, with transparent user performance on each mobile communications. It allows video conferencing, streaming picture and much more. Some standards for the 4G system include 802.20, WiMAX (802.16), TDD UMTS, HSDPA and future versions of UMTS. 4G is based on OFDM. Other aspects of 4G are smart antennas and adaptive processing. OFDM is designed so that to send data over parallel streams, increasing the amount of information that we can send at a time over CDMA networks. 5.2 AIM OF THE PROJECT As the wireless industry is evolving, it has developed an infrastructure which aims to provide services to the market. But the designing, production of this type of technological infrastructure comes along with high cost. This high cost may push manufacturers from building the whole systems to test the designs. Therefore manufacturers go for different alternatives to avoid high costs; one of the best alternatives is to simulate a real wireless system. A simulation of a wireless system could depend on many different components. A major component of a wireless system simulation is the wireless channel model. Many Different approaches could be used to simulate diverse types of channels and their conditions. The use of channel modeling may rises questions about their validity. This generates a motivation towards the study of these models and the conditions under which they can be used. This part of our project aims to use current methods of modeling Rayleigh Fading Channels, which include common basic concepts and MATLAB simulation. Based on this model, we will be able to analize the models capacity, application areas and correctness for future developments. 5.3 WHAT IS CHANNEL MODELLING? A channel modelling is a mathematical representations of the transfer characteristics of the medium. This model can be based on some underlying physical criterion or it could by fitting the appropriate mathematical or statistical model on the channel behaviour. Most channels modelled are formulated by observing the traits of the received signals for each specific condition. Usually the one that best explains the behaviour of the received signal is used to model the given physical channel. Such analysis reduces our cost of building a complicated system by the reduction of the amount of hardware that has to be developed for assessment. When it comes to theory, models have another advantage in their ability to regenerate a channel for comparison between many different communication strategies, resulting in an exact measure of relative performance. A channel can be modeled by calculating the physical processes which can effect the transmitted signal. The channel is normally modeled by calculating the reflection of every object present in the environment. A channel model can either be digital or analog. Physical and statistical modeling can be combined. In wireless communications the channel is usually modeled by a randomly generated attenuation of the transmitted signal, and later with additive noise. The noise in this model captures the external interference and/or the electronic noise in the receiver. If attenuation is more complex, it describes the time of a signal, to get in through the channel. Measurements or simulations decide the statistics of the randomly generated attenuation. Channel models can be continuous as there is no limit as to how precisely their values can be defined. 5.4 MODULATION The purpose of communication systems is to transmit baseband signals through a channel using electromagnetic waves. In communications, modulation is the process of transmitting a message signal. Modulation is conversion of baseband signals into band pass signals at a frequency that is high as compared to the baseband signals frequency. The band pass signal is known as modulated signal and the baseband signal is known as modulating signal. Device, which performs modulation, known as a modulator and device that inverses the operation, known as a demodulator. Jointly this type of device is called a modem. The parameters that can be changed in modulation are: Frequency Phase Amplitude 5.5 Digital Modulation The problem is to convert digital signals to analogue signal and can be transmitted using a twisted cable pair, via microwave or satellite. Digital modulation is used to transfer digital data over analogue channel. Digital modulation schemes have greater ability to send large amounts of information than analog modulation schemes. That is why digital modulation provides more data capacity, also compatible with digital data services, data security is very high, better quality communications, and quick system availability. There are many factors influencing the choice of modulation technique for a specific use which include: Power efficiency Spectral efficiency Bit error rate (BER) Implementation complexity 5.5.1 TYPES OF DIGITAL MODULATION Frequency shift key modulation(FSK) Amplitude shift key modulation(ASK) Phase shift key modulation(PSK) Binary-phase shift key modulation(BPSK) Quadrature-phase shift key modulation(QPSK) Quadrature amplitude modulation(QAM) 5.5.1.1 FREQUENCY SHIFT KEY MODULATION(FSK) Frequency-shift keying (FSK) is the modulation in which digital information is send through discrete changes in frequency of a carrier wave. The frequency of the carrier is changed, as a function of the modulating signal, which is being conveyed. Amplitude is remains unchanged. Two constant amplitude carriers are used, one for a binary zero, the second one for a binary one. The simplest frequency shift keying used is binary FSK (BFSK). Binary FSK implies using discrete frequencies to send binary information. 1 is called the mark frequency whereas 0 is called the space frequency. 5.5.1.2 AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEY MODULATION (ASK) Amplitude-shift keying (ASK) is a modulation that shows digital data, as change in the Amplitude of the carrier wave. The amplitude of analog carrier signal, changes according to the bit stream containing frequency and phase constant. Level of amplitude is used to represent binary 0(s) and 1(s). We pursue the carrier signal as an ON or OFF switch. In modulated signal, logic 0 is represented by the absence of the carrier, hence giving ON/OFF operation. Both ASK modulation and demodulation processes are comparatively inexpensive. The ASK technique is also used to send data through optical fibre. The low level shows binary 0, while a higher-amplitude light wave represents binary 1. 5.5.1.3 PHASE SHIFT KEY MODULATION (PSK) Phase-shift keying (PSK) is a digital modulation technique which transmits data by modulation, or, changing phase of the carrier signal. PSK uses many phases which are finite and each phase is assigned a different scheme of binary bits. Every phase encodes an equal numbers of bit. The demodulator is designed specially for the set of symbols used by modulator, finds the phase and maps the received signal back to the symbol it represents, so it recovers the original data. 1)BINARY PSK BPSK (also known as PRK, Phase Reversal Keying), is the simplest form of phase shift keying (PSK). It consists of two phases which are separated by 180 and so they can also be termed 2-PSK. This modulation is the most vigorous of all the PSKs as it takes the highest level of noise and, or distortion to make the demodulator reach incorrect decision. It is only able to modulate at 1 bit/symbol and so is not suitable for high data rate applications if bandwidth is limited. 2)QUADRATURE PSK QPSK (known as quadriphase PSK 4-PSK or 4-QAM), uses four points in the diagram of constellation, equally spaced around a circle. With four phases, QPSK encodes 2 bits/symbol. This can be used to double the information rate as compared to a BPSK system keeping the bandwidths of the signal or can be used to maintain the data-rate of BPSK but with half the bandwidth required. With BPSK, there are many phase ambiguity problems at the receiving end so to avoid it; differentially encoded QPSK is used more often in practice. 5.5.1.4 QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION (QAM) Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) is used in both an analog and a digital modulation. It uses two analog message signals, by modulating the amplitude of the two carrier waves, which are using the amplitude-shift keying (ASK) modulation scheme. These two waves are normally sinusoids and are out of phase by 90 and are called quadrature carriers or components. The modulated waves are added, and the resulting wave is a combination of both amplitude-shift keying and phase-shift keying (PSK). PSK modulators are designed using the QAM principle, but these are not considered QAM as the amplitude of the modulated signal is constant. 5.6 CHANNELS MODELS FOR COMMUNICATION Communication channels refer to the medium through which information is conveyed from a transmitter to a treceiver. 5.6.1 ADDITIVE WHITE GUASSIAN NOISE (AWGN) CHANNEL An AWGN channel adds white Gaussian noise to the signal that passes through it. Additive white Gaussian noise is channel in which the only drawback to communication is the addition of white noise having constant spectral density and a Gaussian distribution of amplitude. This model is not able to support frequency selectivity interference, nonlinearity, fading or dispersion. The AWGN channel is a good model for many satellites but is not good model for most terrestrial links because of multipath and interference. For terrestrial links modelling AWGN is commonly used to create background noise. The relative power of noise an AWGN channel offers is usually described by parameters like Signal-to-noise ratio of each sample. This is the input parameter to the AWGN function in the ratio between Bit energy to noise power spectral density (EbNo). The relationship between EsNo and EbNo, in dB: k = information bits per symbol. 5.6.2 MULTIPATH CHANNEL Signal multipath occurs when the conveyed signal reaches at the receiver through multiple preoperational paths. If there is no line of sight between sender and receiver then multipath is produced from reflection in the environment. Where each path can have a separate phase, delay and doppler shift, attenuation associated with it. Due to signal multipath the received signal has some undesirable properties like signal fading, inter-symbol-interference, distortion etc. The effects of multipath include destructive and constructive interferences and phase shifting of the signal. Two types of Multipath: Discrete: When the signal arrives at the receiver from a limited number of paths. Diffuse: The received signal is better modeled as being received from a very large number of scatterers. 5.6.3 FADING CHANNELS Fading channels in communication are those which experience fading of the signal. Where fading is the change in the signal amplitude over time at the receiver.In wireless systems fading may be due to the multipath propagation called multipath fading or due to shadowing called shadow fading.Due to the loss of signal power overall performance of the system decreases. Fading channel models are used in order to model the effect of transmission of information over a channel. Fading channels are multiplicative-noise channels and result in bursts of errors.The multiplicative nature of the channel means increasing signal power may not yield a proportional improvement in performance. When signals reach at the receiving antenna with traversed different paths, they may combine destructively. This, multipath, phenomenon can induce signal fading. Fading Types: Frequency-Selective: The effects of the channel on the information signal are frequency-dependent Frequency-Nonselective TYPES EXAMPLE OF FADING CHANNELS Rayleigh Fading Ricean Fading 5.6.5 RICEAN FADING CHANNEL Ricean fading is the fading in which the cancellation of the signal is by itself. Rayleigh fading with a strong line of sight is said to have a Ricean distribution and is called Ricean fading. 5.7 TECHNOLOGIES USED IN 4G: ORTHOGNAL FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING(OFDM) ULTRA WIDEBAND(UWB) MILLIMETER WIRELESS SMART ANTENNAS LONG TERM POWER PREDICTION SHEDULING AMONG USERS ADAPTIVE MODULATION AND POWER CONTROL 5.8 ORTHOGNAL FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) is a method of digital modulation in which a signal is split into several narrowband channels at different frequencies. OFDM is defined as a form of multi-carrier modulation where the carrier spacing is vigilantly selected so that every sub carrier is orthogonal to the remaining sub carriers. Two signals are orthogonal when their dot product is zero. If you multiply two signals together, and if their integral over an interval is zero, then two signals are orthogonal in that interval. Orthogonality can be attained by vigilantly selecting carrier spacing, such as letting the carrier spacing be equal to the reciprocal of the useful symbol period. As the sub carriers are orthogonal, the spectrum of every carrier has a null at the center frequency of each of the other carriers in the system. This results in no interference between the carriers. The major principle of OFDM is to split a high information Stream into a number of lower data-rate streams which are conveyed over a number of subcarriers simultaneously. Because the symbol duration for lower data-rate parallel subcarriers increases, the amount of dispersion in time caused by multi-path delay spread is decreased. The help of introducing a guard time in each OFDM symbol finishes inter-symbol interference almost completely. The symbol is extended in the guard time to avoid inter-carrier interference. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is a very important technique for communication over frequency selective channel. By dividing the bandwidth available into orthogonal and non-interfering subcarriers and using a parallel transmission strategy, it gives better immunity to the multipath fading effect of the wireless channel than single-carrier transmission system. OFDM is extensively used in commercial systems such as xDSL modems, and wireless LAN. It is also part of WiMax, and a strong candidate for future wireless cellular systems. Even OFDM multiplexes low data rate sub-streams from a user and divide it to multiple subcarriers, a cellular network uses orthogonal frequency division multiple access (OFDMA), in which the data streams from different users are multiplexed onto different sets of the subcarriers. 5.8.1ADAVANTAGES OF OFDM Immune to delay spread Symbol duration greater than channel delay spread Needed Guard interval More Resistance to frequency fading Every sub-channel is flat fading More Efficient bandwidth usage 5.8.2DISADVATAGES OF OFDM problem of synchronization errors due to Timing Carrier noise Sampling synchronization Frequency synchronization FFT units needed at transmitter and receiver 5.9 Simulation of Rayliegh Fading in MATLAB We computed the BER for BPSK in OFDM modulation in the presence of Rayeligh fading channel. The equation used to find BER is Rayliegh fading was implemented in MATLAB as a part of our project the simulations results are as follows: Matlab simulation performs the following: Generation of random sequence in binary. BPSK modulation Assigning to multiple OFDM symbols

The Impeachment of President Clinton Essay - 698 Words

James Madison, in writing the US Constitution in 1787, intended that the system of checks and balances would separate the powers of the government branches and counter a â€Å"tyranny of the majority†. He carefully sought to distribute powers in a way that prevents any one faction from dominating. Under this system, the President can appoint federal judges, grant pardons, veto bills, propose laws, reject part of bills, etc. Equally, the Congress can override presidential veto, impeach the President, ratify treaties, etc., and the Courts can declare laws and executive orders unconstitutional. The contemporary system of checks and balances isn’t working as Madison intended as illustrated by the impeachment of President Clinton, the government†¦show more content†¦Furthermore, none of the misconduct associated with President Clinton was an assault on the American form of government. 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The Christian Of Harry Potter Essay - 2059 Words

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