How Has Climate Change Effected Cambodia Environmental Sciences Essay

How Has Climate Change Effected Cambodia Environmental Sciences Essay Nowadays the world has encountered abundance of challenges such as terrorism, transnational crimes, environment issues and weapon mass destruction (WMD) proliferation. As a matter of fact, these issues cannot be solved by one state; in order to overcome these problems, international cooperation and increasing non-state capability are required. For me, the most anxiety and interesting challenge is environment issue especially climate change and global warming due to two main reasons. First, this issue is a contemporary issue that has affected the world especially agriculture based countries. As we know, about 80 percents of Cambodia population are farmers, and most of them still practice old traditional farming rather than using new technology to assist them. Furthermore, farmers usually rely on water during rainy season to provide water to their fields and harvest on dry season; however, because of climate change and global warming the issue occur when there is not enough water in rainy season plus the irrigation system in Cambodia does not adequate to provide water to everywhere in the country as well, so some farmers cannot plant anything and end up with debt. Thus, this research can show the effects on Cambodia as the agriculture based country. Second, I want to do a research plan on this issue in order to apply for scholarship to study abroad when I graduate. By doing the research on this topic, I can know more about the grass root causes-effects, current solutions and obstacles of these issues. In conclusion, since this issue is beyond my understanding in some aspect, I will use this opportunity when I study the global governance course to analyze this topic, and I hope this individual reflection paper can share knowledge to other students as well. IRP outline: MC#1: Introduction MC#2: The causes of climate change and global warming MC#3: The effects of climate change and global warming MC#4: Responses and challenges MC#5: Conclusion (Note: this outline might be altered according to the research) Topic: Climate change, global warming and its effect on Cambodia as a nation Mini Composition #1: Introduction Global warming and Climate change have been the environmental issues facing humankind for such a long times, and these issues has attracted the international attention during the 1970s. Because these issues are quite a complex subject, cooperation between states and increasing capability of the relevant non-state actors (NSAs) are solutions to deal with these issue. Over the past decades, leaders from states have negotiated to seek a comparative solution for all parties; the institutional framework provided by the UNFCC, the United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change, in 1992 and plus the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, yet these fragile frameworks do not contribute much to alleviate the problems due to realism ideas, lacking in private morality and uncertainty of states. Furthermore, its impacts are far beyond human ability to control and monitor. we shall discuss in detail about the responses in Chapter4 Global warming is a term used to describe a persistent increase in the earths mean surface temperature relative to long-term average conditions (those that prevail over centuries). In fact, the world climate changes over period; however, in the late 19th century, the climate has changed considerably. Furthermore, it is difficult to distinguish the global warming and climate change since global warming results in climate change and the two terms are sometimes used interchangeably, though climate change has a broader meaning and refers to changes in average climatic conditions (temperature, wind, rainfall, and other climatic variables) relative to their long-term average. Both natural and anthropogenic (human-caused) factors can causes global warming, but the overwhelming scientific consensus is that the increase in global temperatures over the past century is primarily due to increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. In conclusion, the global warming and climate change is a wide range of issues that need efforts from each actor in international relation. In the next chapter, we will take a deep look to the causes of global warming and climate change. Mini Composition #2: What are the causes of global warming and climate change? Many scientists endeavor to determine preciously what key factors are behind the global warming and climate change, and they come up with different causes that are interrelated. We can divide causes into two categories increasing amount of Green house gases (GHGs) and urbanization. According to Time For Change organization report, almost 100% of the observed temperature is being increased over the last 50 years has been due to the increase in the atmosphere of greenhouse gas concentrations like water vapor, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane, ozone and other gases. However, the largest contributing source of greenhouse gases is the emission of carbon dioxide (CO2). GHGs in the atmosphere act like a mirror and Fig. 1: the relative of the major human-produced greenhouse gases to current warming [Source: www.koshland-science-museum.org/exhibitgcc/cause01.jsp] reflect back to the Earth a part of the heat radiation, which would, otherwise, be lost to space. The higher the concentration of green house gases like carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, the more heat energy is being reflected back to the Earth. Thus, what are the causes of increasing those gases? So far, the causes of variation of atmospheric greenhouse gases especially carbon dioxide are human-made activities and natural disasters. There are various kinds of human activities that increase the amount of CO2 such as burning fossil fuels, emission of smoke by factories, overpopulation, clearing forests for development (agriculture, industrialization or urbanization) and logging in the jungle. For instance, the emission of CO2 into the environment mainly from burning of fossil fuels (oil, gas, petrol, etc.) has been increased significantly over the past 50 years (see the graph below). Fig. 1: Carbon dioxide emissions in million tons per year over the last 200 years [Source: http://www.globalwarmingart.com/wiki/Image:Global_Carbon_Emission_by_Type_png] Another cause is urbanization. In order to transform lands from forest or natural to urbanization, industrialization or agriculture, policy makers often face trade-off between development and environment. For example, in industrialized nations, they need fuel in fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gases in order to run their factories. Even though, the leaders do know that it will damage the environment, they have no choice rather than extract natural resources within their countries or other states. Moreover, small particles in the air (aerosols) may have warming or cooling effects, depending on their characteristics. Sulfate (SO4) aerosol, for example, is light-colored and reflects sunlight back into space. The cooling effect of volcanic aerosols from the Mt. Tambora eruption of 1815 caused North Americas year without a summer in 1816. The other interesting cause is overpopulation. According to the US Census Bureaus Web site (15:41 UTC (EST+5) Nov 04, 2010), the number of people in the world is 6,879,418,535. When there are more people, there will be more de mands, and it will lead to more supplies. Thus, in order that factories can increase their productivities, they need more energy and natural resources. Moreover, some products affect the environment because they contain greenhouse gases. For instance, refrigerators and aerosols which contain chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs) that causes damage to the ozone layer. Case study In this case study, we are going to explore the causes that Cambodia contributes to the climate change and global warming. There are three main causes which are deforestation, urbanization and industrialization. First, Deforestation is a hidden causes and controversial in the international stage as well. Between 25 and 30 percent of the greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere each year comes from deforestation. For instance, Cambodia, located in South East Asia, was recognized as a green country that consisted of rainforest (70% all over country) in 1970s. Unfortunately, Cambodia becomes one of the highest rates of deforestation in the world, third to only Nigeria and Vietnam, according to a 2005 report conducted by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). The percentage of rainforest fell dramatically from over 70% in 1970 to just 3.1% in 2007. There are some reasons behind this disaster such as war, fragile governance, development, lands incentive f or investments, agricultures, and so on. Second, the Cambodia government has initialed to urbanize the city due to overpopulation and reform. Even though, this development does alleviate and give benefit to this country, it also affects the environment. For instance, when land is converted from forests or nature to urban environments, the regional climate system is altered because urban environments are also islands of heat produced by industry, homes, automobiles, and asphalts absorption of solar energy. Last but not least, in Cambodia, the number of factories, located in the cities and countryside, also affect to the environment. The disposal of waste on land, in water and air damage the ecosystems and leak abundance of green house gases especially CO2. Thus, even though Cambodia is a tiny country in the world, it also mainly contributes to the climate change and global warming as well. In conclusion for this chapter, green house gases, that created by human-made activities and natural disasters, are the main causes of global warming and climate changes. In the next chapter, we will discuss detail about the effects of the global warming and climate changes. Mini Composition #3: What are the effects of global warming and climate change? Even thought global warming and climate change have many effects, these phenomena are interrelated, so to make ease for analyze the effects, I will categorized in six main impacts (1) increasing the temperature on the earth; (2) rising of sea levels; (3) changing landscapes; (4) increasing risk of drought, fire, foods and species extinction; (5) increasing heat-related illness and disease; and (6) economic looses. Increasing the temperature on the earth simply means the earth becomes warmer and warmer, and this is not a new phenomenon, but due to global warming the temperature in the world has increased rapidly and upward. Because the amount of GHGs mainly CO2 increase dramatically in recent decades, Time For Change Organization makes a projection that the temperature of the earth will be increased by 3o to 50 by the year 2050. As the world is heated, sea levels rise because warmer water takes up more room than colder water, a process known as thermal expansion1. Furthermore, the glaciers in the polar melt leads to raising sea levels. Rising seas threaten to inundate low-lying areas and islands, threaten dense coastal populations, erode shorelines, damage property and destroy ecosystems such as mangroves and wetlands that protect coasts against storms. A logical consideration is a 36-inch increase in sea levels would swamp every city on the East Coast of the United States, from Miami to Boston. Moreover, sea level rise associated with climate changes could displace tens of millions of people in low-lying areas especially in developing countries. Inhabitants of some small island countries that rest barely above the existing sea level are already abandoning their islands, some of the worlds first climate change refugees. Another effect is changing landscapes. We can divide it into two different issues land degradation and desertification. Land degradation simply means soil quality is worsening. This phenomenon is a result of over-farming and poor land-use practice. On the other hand, desertification means the growths of deserts and sand areas. Each year according to the United Nations Environmental Program, an area of land about the size of Australia, approximately 31000 square miles, turns into dessert. Another major effect is increasing risk of drought, fire, foods and species extinction. Climate change makes the circulation of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth causing drought and floods to be more frequent, serious and widespread. In 2010, according to Pakistani government data the floods directly affected about 20 million people, mostly by destruction of property, livelihood and infrastructure, with a death toll of close to 2,000.2 Due to the overpopulation, people need to increase the food productivities to meet the demand. Unfortunately, because of land degradation and desertification, most of the soils in the world become poorer and it leads to food insecurity in the world. Moreover, According to The Nature Conservancy group, experts predict that one-fourth of Earths species will be headed for extinction by 2050 if the warming trend continues at its current rate. Not so long, the world already experiences some lessons. For example, in 1999, the death of the last Golden Toad in Central America marked the first documented species extinction driven by climate change3. Another effect is increasing heat-related illness and disease. When the ozone layer becomes thinner, more amount of sun light will come to the earth. Consequently, people will get skin disease because of Ultraviolet. Moreover, Climate change may increase the spread of infectious diseases, because warmer temperatures let diseases carrying insects, animals and microbes to survive in areas where they were once thwarted by cold weather. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that climate change may have caused more than 150,000 deaths in the year 2000 alone, with an increase in deaths likely in the future. Last but not least, global warming prevail the economy loose. Globally, serious change in weather (more serious hurricane, storm etc.) could cause billions of dollars in damage to property and infrastructure. Plus, declining crop productions due to prolonged drought and high temperatures, especially in Africa, could put hundreds of thousands of people at risk. Thus, the effects of global warming and climate change are varies and interrelated. After we have look through to the major effects of these phenomenon, then we shall analyze on the certain country, Cambodia. Case study In the previous chapter, we have examined the causes that Cambodia has contributed to the global warming and climate change. In this case study on the other hand, we shall prevail and analyze the impacts of global warming and climate change in this country. Cambodias temperature would increase up to 1.35 2.50C in 2100. Annual rainfall would increase between 3 and 35% from current condition; lowland areas seem to be more affected than highland areas4. Map of flood-prone communes Map of drought-prone communes Source: WFP (2005) Floods and drought are recognized as one of the main contributors to poverty. In these pictures above, Cambodia is vulnerable to floods and droughts. High dependency on rain-fed farming makes agriculture sector particularly vulnerable. In Cambodia, the impact of climate change has become apparent, yet the public does not feel alert due to limited knowledge and other. There are six implication suggestions on Cambodia. First, recall memory of economy loose. Floods caused 70% of production losses of rice, while drought 20% between 1998 and 2002, and the floods caused USD 205 million damage between 2000 and 20025. Second, According to Allison, he claims that Cambodias economy is rated as one of the most vulnerable to impacts of climate change on fisheries. Third, if the sea level rises, it will affect areas near the sea. The research of ministry of whether shows that 1m rise can submerge 56% of Koh Kong City. Consequently, it will damage to infrastructure, agriculture, tourism, and livelihood. Fourth, as an agriculture country, when the food productivities decline, it leads to food insecurity in the country since Cambodian highly depends on single crop and low processing capacity within the country. Firth, another effect is water quality degradation and sanitation. Finally, increase in water- related / tropical diseases such as malaria and dengue. The Ministry of the Environment estimates that under changing climatic conditions Cambodia may experience increasing incidences of malaria, up 16 percent from its current rate. Natural disasters have upset fragile ecosystems, which in turn have triggered other changes that have affected issues such as ri sing poverty and malnutrition in children. In conclusion, Cambodias weak social infrastructure will affect the poor, and it will be a heavy burden for Cambodias next generations, who will have difficulty in bridging its ecological deficit. Thus, the government and all others relevant must come up with strong policies and fast action to combat climate change. In the next chapter, we shall examine the actions undertaken by international actors and Cambodia itself. Mini composition #4 Responses and challenges of global warming and climate change After severe suffer from these environmental issues, states have recognized that they are in troubles. Consequently, two key environmental conferences were held during the 1990s, namely Rio Earth Summit in 1992 and Kyoto Environmental Summit in 1997. Held under UN auspices, the Rio Earth Summit brought together thousands of delegates and representatives from state actors and non state actors. According to Time reporter, Philip Elmer-Dewitt, published in Rich Vs Poor in 1992, the Earth Summit was the largest and most complex conference ever held- bigger than the momentous meetings at Versailles, Yalta, and Potsdam1. In this summit, 178 states signed two treaties, the UN Framework Convention on Climate Changes (UNFCC), addressed global warming issues and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), addressed to protect endangered species and biodiversity. The UNFCC sets the basic objective to achieve stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. Regarding this summit, the great success is that it gathered many people from different part of the international community that had never assembled to discuss a particular issue. Moreover, Earth summit also raised global consciousness about environmental issue; however, throughout the Rio meeting, a conflict between environmental protection and economic development was reveal because the insistence of many Developing World states that feared that stronger wording might adversely affect their economies. Following the Rio Earth Summit, the Kyoto Environmental Summit in 1997, Japan, intended to address the global warming issue. Despite reduction in the emission of green house gases (GHGs) mandated by the Montreal Protocol and Rio summit agreements, states in the world still released too many of GHGs into the atmosphere, so the atmosphere remained at risk. This Kyoto protocol provided economic incentive for developing states to meet their targets through trade and clean development mechanism, and urged for cooperation between developed and developing states over environmentally clean projects. Nevertheless, only seven out of 84 countries who signed the protocol ratified it in 1999 all of which were small islands or low lying states particularly concerned by global warming and submerging them; however, the conflict between developing and developed states has remained and it needs to be sort out through trust cooperation and mutual interests. Responses From these two summits, there are three suggested solutions carbon management, creating market incentive and alternative energies. Among GHGs, carbon dioxide is the dangerous chemical substance that is the major cause of global warming and climate change. Since the industrialization era, the demand of fossil fuel has increased dramatically, so oil production become inelastic. In order to cope with the carbon budgets, we do need to face head-on six importance activities, (1) slow or stop deforestation, (2) reduce emissions from electricity production, (3) reduce emissions from automobiles, (4) clean up industrial processes in a few major sectors, (5) economize on electricity use through more efficient motors, appliances, lighting, insulation and other electrical demands; (6) convert point-source based systems powered by low-emission electricity. Considering the challenges of reducing emissions from the electricity generation are complicated, there are three major avenues to reduced emissions from the power sectors: greater efficiency in the use of electricity, a greater proportion of electricity generation with n on-fossil fuel sources of energy and special engineering processes to capture the carbon dioxide from fossil fuel electricity plants and to store it by using a technology called carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) 1. The Kyoto protocol has accomplished one major advance: the start of a market price on carbon emissions, in the form of tradable carbon permits, albeit only in Europe. This strategy more or less provides incentive to the emitters to limit carbon emission from their factories. Furthermore, there is an urgent need to increase funding for climate science in the poorest countries to help those countries understand how adapt to the climate change, and science also needed to enable those countries to participate effectively in global mitigation efforts by reducing the rate of deforestation and by adoption low-carbon energy strategies in the course of economic development. Last but not least, we can expect non-fossil energy sources to provide a good and growing fraction of the worlds energy supply. While fossil fuels will predominate for some decades more, in the longer term non-fossil alternatives are likely to come to preeminence. Wind, hydroelectricity, ocean waves, bio-fuel, geothermal and nuclear energy will be more favored although each of these is limited by local condition and not applicable as global solutions. Due to popularity and profits, states attempt to gain the nuclear energy, but it can pose threat to the localized and internationalized because of nuclear radiation and nuclear weapon. Prepared by SAY VORTANA 2 email: [emailprotected] Challenges From my perspective, there are two main challenges implementation and the inequity between developed and developing states. The problem is not the framework or purpose but implementations. The Kyoto protocol commitments were very modest (only 5 percent reduction) and short term until 2012, and it shows the cooperation of the world on a carbon management trajectory. Even so this treaty is considered as failure when the U.S did not ratify this protocol in fear of economic development impacts. The US, far and away the biggest contributor to GHGs, indignantly telling poor countries bearing the consequences in famines, droughts, increased malaria transmission and more that the United States will not even start on emissions control, so how can other states obey and ratify this treaty? Another important but controversial challenges is the inequity between developed and developing states. Development and environmental protection are dilemma for decision makers of individual states; developing countries who try to develop their countries are inevitable to exploit their natural resources, so when developed states who enjoyed their economic growth in the past decades tell developing states to stop exploit their natural resources, it is injustice. For example, when the US and Europe tell Brazil to stop deforestation business investment, and similarly China was criticized for air pollution. In conclusion, as long as there is no strong support from super power P5 (security council); the south and north cannot reach mutual interests (efficiency and equity) plus trust each other, the global warming and climate change still remain unsure when will it can be sort out. Case study What are the possible solution for Cambodia to overcome global warming and climate change? There are three potential solutions low carbon economy/ enhance economy efficiency, carbon finance and promote environment awareness. Cambodias government can improve and examine seven factors: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Energy supply improved supply and distribution efficiency, Renewable sources, security and access à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Transport Hybrid vehicles, emission standards, bio fuels, Public transport, non- motorized transport à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Buildings passive and active solar integrated buildings, improved insulation à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Industry Upgrading of factories, processing lines / schemes etc. Prepared by SAY VORTANA 3 email: [emailprotected] à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Agriculture improved agricultural practices à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Waste management landfill methane recovery; waste to energy; composting; recycling and waste minimization à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Forestry Reforestation; forest management; reduced deforestation For carbon finance Cambodia can enjoy with the extra paid by using clean development mechanism (CDM). According to UNDP based in Cambodia, a local power generator, Samrong Thom Methane-fired Power Generation reduce total GHG emission for 7 years 47,544 tCO2e; this generator can get total income at $15/tCO2e: US$ 713,160 from carbon finance2, so government should encourage this kind of investment in Cambodia. Invest in Biogas Digester (source: UNDP) Another solution is to promote environment awareness for Cambodian. The bottom- up strategy also provides a better option to overcome this issue. The government can work effectively with other Non-government organizations (NGOs) by providing environment education in the public school and local communities. In short, besides protecting environment, Cambodia can enjoy low carbon economy through carbon finance; furthermore, the bottom-up strategy can promote environment issue awareness in Cambodia. In the last chapter of this paper, we will wrap up and provide brief conclusion. Mini composition #5 Conclusion Global warming and climate change are transnational issues that pose great challenges to the global governance. Nations has suffered severe disaster such as flood, hurricane, serious earthquake, drought and so on recently, and it would be great danger in the future if global warming and climate change are not sorted out effectively. Despite of cooperation between states through earth summit and Kyoto protocol, the issues remain widespread from day to day. Who will be responsible? Developed states or developing states? The controversial stances between developed countries and developing countries remain exists and pose a big challenge for Kyoto protocol. Furthermore, the decision maker, leader, head of states are inevitable face dilemma between development and environmental protection. For Cambodia, Cambodia contributes little to climate change but almost all the provinces in Cambodia are vulnerable to climate change due to their low adaptive capacity and dependence on climate-sensitive livelihoods. Moreover, climate change is expected to increase the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as floods, droughts and windstorms as well as coastal inundation due to sea-level rise. Responding to climate change should start by linking efforts to reduce vulnerability to present climate-related disasters with those aimed at building longer-term resilience to climate change. Low carbon economy/enhance economy efficiency, carbon finance and promote environment awareness are the factors that will be alleviate and assist Cambodian through bright future in the next generation. For both international and national level, implementation and commitment from the government or head of state is compulsory to ensure the sustainable growth with the green economy policy.

Q Manual Essay

After the lecture Tutorials and your learning Reading in your study 2. 8. 1 Reading to understand or comprehend 2. 8. 2 Reading for critical comment Checklist for studying faculty units and courses 13 14 14 15 16 16 Chapter 3 The research process: A basic guide 3. 1 The research process 3. 1. 1 Step 1: Understand the assignment topic/question(s) 3. 1. 2 Step 2: Decide what sort of information you need to complete the assignment 3. 1. 3 Step 3: Decide where to look for this information 3. 1. 4 Step 4: Develop and use a search strategy for database searching 3. 1. 5 Step 5: Evaluate the information found and revise the plan 3. 1. 6 Step 6: Presentation 3. 1. 7 Step 7: Final evaluation Using the Internet for research 3. 2. 1 Some further tips for productive Internet research 17 17 17 17 18 18 20 22 22 23 23 3. 2 Chapter 4 Academic writing skills 4. 1 4. 2 4. 3 4. 4 Characteristics of successful writing 4. 1. 1 Responding to the task Exam question, Accounting and Finance 4. 2. 1 Initial analysis, key terms and directions Structuring your writing clearly 4. 3. 1 Writing structure Forming and expressing your perspective on the task 4. 4. 1 â€Å"Crystallised response† 4. 4. 2 Plan the response Supporting your perspective 4. 5. 1 Paragraph structure 4. 5. 2 Use of references Presenting a consistent and logical response Expressing your ideas clearly 4. 7. 1 Formal academic language 4. 7. 2 Some other features of academic language Checklist for academic writing skills 25 25 25 27 27 27 28 29 29 30 31 31 32 33 33 34 34 36 4. 5 4. 6 4. 7 4. 8 Chapter 5 Writing essays 5. 1 5. 2 5. 3 5. 4 Analyse the task Synthesise your information Plan the essay Reference the sources of information 37 37 37 37 38 Chapter 6 Writing a literature review 6. 1 6. 2 6. 3 6. 4 The nature of a literature review Procedure for completing a literature review Writing the literature review Checklist for a literature review 39 39 40 40 41 Chapter 7 Report writing 7. 1 The process 7. 1. 1 Identify the purpose of the report 7. 1. 2 Identify the readers and their needs 7. 1. 3 Research the topic 7. 1. 4 Outline the report 7. 1. 5 Write the draft 7. 1. 6 Edit the draft 7. 1. 7 The finished product 7. 2 Report presentation and layout 7. 2. 1 Structure of a report 7. 3 Report writing checklist 42 42 42 42 42 43 43 43 44 44 44 46 Chapter 8 Case study method 8. 1 8. 2 Some general issues Problem solving case format. 49 49 49 Chapter 9 Academic integrity and honesty: avoiding plagiarism in written work 9. 1 9. 2 What is plagiarism? Monash University Statute 4. 1 and policy regarding plagiarism 9. 2. 1 What happens when plagiarism is suspected 9. 2. 2 Students’ responsibility Using references appropriately in your written work Use of references in writing 9. 4. 1 Unsuitable use of references Suitable integration of references 9. 5. 1 Techniques for using an author’s ideas 9. 5. 2 A summary 9. 5. 3 Paraphrasing, or writing in your own words Conclusion 51 51 52 53 53 54 54 54 55 55 56 56 57 9. 3 9. 4 9. 5 9. 6 Chapter 10 Referencing. 10. 1 10. 2 10. 3 10. 4 What is referencing? When should you reference? Why should you reference your work? Referencing using the APA style 10. 4. 1 Creating in-text citations 10. 4. 2 Creating a reference list Footnoting 10. 5. 1 In-text citations using footnotes 10. 5. 2 Creating the bibliography 58 58 58 59 59 59 62 69 70 74 10. 5 Chapter 11 Presentation skills 11. 1 11. 2 11. 3 What is a presentation? Planning and preparation 11. 2. 1 Analysing your audience Presentation design 11. 3. 1 Objective 11. 3. 2 Content 11. 3. 3 Structure Visual support 11. 4. 1 Handouts Delivery 11. 5. 1 Methods of delivery 11. 5. 2 Rehearsal Nerve control 11. 5. 3 11. 5. 4 Your voice 11. 5. 5 Non-verbal communication Group presentations 11. 6. 1 Team balance 11. 6. 2 Transitions 11. 6. 3 Support for the speaker 11. 6. 4 Your role as coach Evaluating the presentation Why do some presentations go wrong? 76 76 76 76 76 76 77 77 79 79 80 80 80 80 80 81 82 82 82 82 82 83 83 11. 4 11. 5 11. 6 11. 7 11. 8 Chapter 12 Exam strategies Preparing for exams 12. 1. 1 Establish the type of exam 12. 1. 2 Develop a broad understanding of the unit’s objectives 12. 1. 3 Develop summaries of topics 12. 1. 4 Review unit material and topics 12. 1. 5 Practise past exam questions 12. 1. 6 Multiple choice questions 12. 1. 7 Short answer and essay questions 12. 1. 8 Calculation questions 12. 2 Operating in the exam 12. 2. 1 Reading and noting time 12. 2. 2 Completing the exam Answering multiple choice questions 12. 2. 3 12. 2. 4 Completing written response questions 12. 3 Checklist for exams 12. 1 84 84 84 84 85 85 85 85 86 87 87 87 87 88 88 88 Q Manual Preface and Acknowledgements The purpose of the Q (for Quality) Manual is to provide new students with practical and easily accessible information regarding university-level study. As its name suggests, this publication is aimed at increasing your effectiveness as a student. For many of you who have not experienced university level study, the Q Manual will provide you with ideas, suggestions and guidelines to enable you to achieve academic success by producing quality work, and getting it submitted on time. We suggest you read the Q Manual thoroughly and refer to it often throughout your course of study. The Q Manual commences with an overview of the Faculty of Business and Economics, its goals, structure and expectations regarding student performance, as well as important policy information about student assessment. The next chapter provides useful advice in relation to approaches to study at the university level. Then follows the bulk of the Q Manual, which focuses on research skills, academic writing skills, and in particular, chapters devoted to commonly required academic assignments, such as essays, literature reviews, reports and case study method. The section relating to academic writing and assignment preparation is followed by chapters covering academic honesty and referencing techniques. The final sections of the Q Manual cover oral presentation skills and exam strategies. There are many people whose valuable contributions to this edition of the Q Manual must be acknowledged. They include (in no particular order): Andrew Dixon, Caulfield Campus Library David Horne, Caulfield Campus Library Owen Hughes, Faculty of Business and Economics Sally Joy, Faculty of Business and Economics Lynne Macdonald, Faculty of Business and Economics Michael Scorgie, Department of Accounting and Finance Claire Tanner, Faculty of Arts Our special thanks go to Lynne Macdonald and Claire Tanner for the many hours spent collating and editing the content and for coordinating production of the Q Manual. Without your efforts and patience, this edition could not have been published. Sincere thanks also go to my dear friend and colleague, Glenda Crosling, who has collaborated with me for many years on a number of significant educational projects for the faculty. A dedicated educator, Glenda works enthusiastically and tirelessly, keeping an open mind, and most importantly, always retaining her wonderful sense of humour! Glenda also thanks Nell for her collegiality, dedication, inspiration and hard work on this and other educational projects. Together, we have produced a publication that we hope will assist you in your studies. Finally, we wish you a stimulating, challenging and rewarding learning experience throughout your undergraduate and postgraduate studies with the Faculty of Business and Economics. Nell Kimberley Department of Management Faculty of Business and Economics January, 2008 Glenda Crosling Education Adviser Faculty of Business and Economics Chapter 1 Introduction 1. 1 Welcome Congratulations on your selection to study one of the courses offered by the Faculty of Business and Economics at Monash University. This manual is intended to provide you with information on how to produce quality work and achieve the best possible results in your examinations. The major goal of the university is to assist you to obtain an excellent education so that you may take your place in society as a well-qualified graduate. It is important to note that while the courses provide the teaching support and the necessary framework for your studies, success can be achieved only through your personal commitment and dedication to hard work throughout all the years of your course. The following information is aimed at familiarising you with the Monash University study environment and increasing your effectiveness as a Monash student, thereby enabling you to reach your potential. For those of you who are experiencing university level study for the first time, this manual will lay an important foundation and prepare you for a new world. 1. 2 Monash University Monash University was established in 1961 and named after General Sir John Monash (1865–1931). Sir John was a soldier, scholar and engineer, and the Commanding General of the Australian forces in France in World War 1. In addition, as the first Chairman of the State Electricity Commission, he took on the immense task of overseeing the development of the LaTrobe Valley’s brown coal resources. Sir John was a man of wide interests and vast intellectual range. He was this country’s first Doctor of Engineering and exemplifies the University’s motto – Ancora Imparo (I am still learning). The university now has a population of more than 50,000 students from over 100 countries, who speak 90 languages. There are eight Monash campuses and two centres, in Italy and London. The primary pursuits of teaching and research are carried out in the university’s ten faculties. The faculties, which each cover a specific body of knowledge, are: Art and Design; Arts; Business and Economics; Education; Engineering; Information Technology; Law; Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences; Pharmacy; and Science. 1. 3 1. 3. 1 Faculty of Business and Economics Goals The aim of the faculty is to use its scale, scope and unique internal diversity to become an international leader in the pursuit, dissemination and analysis of knowledge, particularly in the disciplines of accounting, banking, econometrics, economics, finance, management, marketing, and tourism. By the application of such knowledge, its staff and students will contribute to the economic, social and commercial development of Australia and other countries in an increasingly globalised environment. 1. 3. 2 Faculty structure The Faculty of Business and Economics is the largest faculty in the university, with more than 17,000 students enrolled over five Australian campuses at Berwick, Caulfield, Clayton, Gippsland and Peninsula, as well as in Malaysia and South Africa. In addition to a diverse range of undergraduate bachelors degrees, the faculty offers a comprehensive range of graduate courses including an executive certificate, graduate certificates and diplomas, masters degrees by coursework and research, the Master of Business Administration, the Doctor of Business Administration, the Master of Philosophy and the Doctor of Philosophy. Courses are delivered on campus, usually through lectures, tutorials and WebCT Vista, while offcampus students are catered for by distance education. 1 The Dean and the main faculty office are located on the Caulfield campus. In addition, there are faculty staff located at the other campuses. Go to http://www. buseco. monash. edu. au/student/contact/ for location and contact details. 1. 3. 3 Departments and centres The Business and Economics faculty is subdivided into organisations that are responsible for particular areas of knowledge. There are six departments and two research centres. The departments are: Accounting and Finance, Business Law and Taxation, Econometrics and Business Statistics, Economics, Management, and Marketing. The research centres are: Centre of Policy Studies, and Centre for Health Economics. They cover fields of study including accounting, banking, business law, business statistics, economics, econometrics, finance, international business, management, human resource management, marketing, taxation and tourism. Whatever your major or areas of study it is essential that you have an understanding of each of the disciplines and how they interact with each other in the overall operations of a business organisation. 1. 3. 4 Aims for learning at Monash University and in the Faculty of Business and Economics The university and the faculty recognise the needs of students for their lives following graduation. As a Monash graduate you will be operating in a globalised and rapidly-changing world, and the university and faculty aim to develop in students’ attributes beyond the ability to understand and operate competently with course and unit content. The aims are that students will develop in ways that will enable them to: †¢ Engage in an internationalised and increasingly globalised world; †¢ Engage in discovery, analysis, integration and application for problem solving and learning with knowledge; †¢ Communicate competently orally and in writing across cultures and settings, including their specific disciplines. As you undertake your studies, you will notice an emphasis on these attributes and you will be engaged in activities and tasks to help you develop them. In the following chapters of this guide, we explain the influences of these attributes on your approach to study. 1. 3. 5 Units Each department offers a wide range of undergraduate and postgraduate units. In a three-year undergraduate degree, there are twenty-four units, with four units to be taken in each semester (parttime students would normally undertake two units each semester). The unit leader or coordinator is responsible for the administration of the particular unit. You can consult with your unit leader, and or coordinator in larger units you may also consult with the other lecturers and tutors. 1. 3. 6 Role of lecturers/tutors Lecturers and tutors have a key role as facilitators of your learning. They are able and most willing to help you with your studies and can be contacted using your student email account. Their email addresses are located in the unit outline. Alternatively, academic staff can be contacted during their consultation hours which are often posted on their door or outside the main administration office. 1. 3. 7 Role of on-line sources of information Monash has adopted a learning management system which provides you with access to on-line unit information. The web contains information that you need to know for the unit, both of an administrative nature as well as useful material for your studies. 2 1. 3. 8 Role of course directors/coordinators If you are encountering academic performance issues, course progression and similar problems you should initially discuss these with enrolment officers or course advisers. You may, occasionally, then be referred to course directors or course coordinators to help with these issues. Undergraduate students are referred to course directors or course coordinators by the faculty office and postgraduate students by departmental administration staff. If referred, course directors and coordinators are available during their consultation hours. 1. 3. 9 Additional important information The Undergraduate and Postgraduate Handbooks and the Student Resource Guide provide important information regarding various aspects of university life. The Student Resource Guide is distributed to all students at the time of initial enrolment and is available on-line at www. monash. edu. au/pubs. It contains details of the university’s code of practice for teaching and learning, as well as grievance and appeals procedures. Further copies can be obtained from Student Service Centres on all campuses. An excellent resource for students is also available on-line via the student link on the Business and Economics Faculty webpage at http://www. buseco. monash. edu. au/student/. The site contains links to important information regarding: courses and units, admissions and enrolments, schools and departments, exams and results, administration, study resources, calendars and timetables, IT and computing, support services, careers and employment, international students, and clubs and associations. 1. 4 Faculty expectations of student performance As students of the faculty, there are a number of units that you will study as part of your course. Although these units may have differing methods of assessment, the faculty has the following expectations of your behaviour and performance. 1. 4. 1. Attendance and participation at lectures and tutorials Lectures and tutorials are central to your performance in the university. Lectures provide the material you require in order to understand the overall nature and direction of the unit. Important concepts and analysis can be emphasised by the lecturer and put into context for the student. Tutorials are a vital part of your studies. They reinforce lecture material and provide you with an opportunity to discuss material presented in lectures, as well as to ask questions. Tutorials also provide you with the opportunity to develop your oral communication skills. The material presented is not designed to give you one view on a topic but to facilitate your understanding of the issue under discussion. Where there are alternative views on an issue, you should learn to articulate, critically approach and assess these differing positions. 1. 4. 2 Special consideration and extension of time for submission of an assessment task Students need to use a Special Consideration Application when applying for Special Consideration for overall assessment, end-of-semester examinations, or additional assessment for a unit (or units) studied during the current semester. Please refer to the following webpage for information on both faculty and university special consideration policy and procedures: http://www. buseco. monash. edu. au/secretariat/policies/spec-con. html Students who require more time to complete a piece of work should apply for an extension of time for submission of an assessment task. Reasons for special consideration include serious short term circumstances beyond the student’s control, such as illness, accident, personal trauma, family emergency or compassionate grounds. Applications should be discussed with the examiner/lecturer/tutor responsible for assessing the task. Please refer to the current student faculty webpage for forms and further information: http://www. buseco. monash. edu. au/student/exams/specconsemester. html 3 1. 4. 3 Workload You are expected to undertake private study in addition to attending lectures and tutorials. Preparation of work to be discussed in tutorials is essential. You will also be required to complete assignments and projects and submit them on the due dates. When taking into account the work carried out during mid-semester breaks and exam weeks, you would expect to study more than thirty hours each week. 1. 4. 4 Self-reliance Compared to your school experience, at the university you are expected to be more independent and self-reliant. In contrast to teachers at school, lecturers and tutors usually teach large numbers of students, sometimes as many as one thousand. They are happy to assist you, but you need to approach the staff member and be clear about what you wish to discuss. It is also your responsibility as a self-reliant student to attend lectures and tutorials, prepare your tutorial work and submit all written work on time. 1. 4. 5 Time management. The expectation at the university is that you learn to manage your own time. This applies to full-time students who have a great deal of time available outside of classes, as well as for part-time students who have to balance work and study. The following chapter on study techniques in this manual provides, among other things, some helpful hints on how to best manage your time and get the most out of your career as a student. 1. 5 Student assessment Assessment in a unit may be made up of several components: a formal examination, essays, tests, assignments, oral presentations and tutorial participation. Assessment details for each unit are provided in the unit guide that you will receive in the first week of each semester. The final mark that a student receives in a unit will be determined by the board of examiners on the recommendation of the chief examiner, taking into account all aspects of assessment. The rights of students to have assessed work re-marked are determined at the departmental level. A student can only be failed after the exam paper has been marked by two staff members. All results are reviewed by the unit leader. You can find further information relating to the university’s assessment in undergraduate units and the responsibilities of examiners using the main policy bank link at: http://www. buseco. monash. edu. au/secretariat /policies/ 1. 5. 1 Examinations For details of examination regulations, please refer to the Monash University Calendar: http://www. monash. edu. au/pubs/calendar/ 1. 5. 2 Use of English dictionaries and calculators As English is the language of instruction within Monash University, foreign language translation dictionaries are not permitted to be used by students sitting examinations. Calculators are permitted if specified on the examination paper, but some units may have a calculator restriction. Students are advised to familiarise themselves with any calculator restrictions applying in units they are studying. For permitted calculator(s) for examinations and units of study go to the faculty policy link at: http://www. buseco. monash. edu. au/secretariat/policies/calculator. html 4 1. 5. 3 Results At the end of each semester, following the completion of examinations, a board of examiners considers student performance as a whole before the results are published. All undergraduate and coursework graduate students who pass are graded into the categories of high distinction, distinction, credit and pass. Honours courses use a different grading system, classified into first class, second class division A, second class division B, third class and pass. 1. 5. 4 Marks and grades Following is a list of marks and grades used within the faculty: 0–49 40–49 45–49 50–59 60–69 70–79 80–100 N NS NP P C D HD NE WH Fail Fail, supplementary exam awarded by Board of Examiners only to graduate students and under special circumstances Near pass is only awarded to undergraduate students. It may be awarded for the last unit to complete a degree. Pass Credit Distinction High distinction Not examined. Used when a unit is taught over two semesters Withheld. Used, for example, when assessment is outstanding due to a special consideration application or incomplete assessment. DEF Deferred examination granted SFR Satisfied faculty requirements This grading system will be current until 2009. For amendments after this time go to: http://www. buseco. monash. edu. au/secretariat/policies/methods-assessment. html 1. 5. 5 Honours grading Honours units are graded as follows: Below 50 50–59 60–69 70–79 80–100 Fail HIII HIIB HIIA HI 5 1. 5. 6 Examples of grades and corresponding achievement levels HD High Distinction 80–100% D Distinction 70–79% A very high standard of work which demonstrates originality and insight C Credit 60–69% Demonstrates a high level of understanding and presentation and a degree of originality and insight Thorough understanding of core texts and materials P Pass 50–59% Satisfies the minimum requirements N Fail 0–49% Fails to satisfy the minimum requirements General description. Outstanding or exceptional work in terms of understanding, interpretation and presentation Strong evidence of independent reading beyond core texts and materials Demonstrates insight, awareness and understanding of deeper and more subtle aspects of the topic. Ability to consider topic in the broader context of the discipline Demonstrates imagination or flair. Demonstrates originality and independent thought Highly developed analytical and evaluative skills Ability to solve very challenging problems Reading Evidence of reading beyond core texts and materials Evidence of having read core texts and materials. Very little evidence of having read any of the core texts and materials Knowledge of topic Evidence of an awareness Sound knowledge of and understanding of principles and concepts deeper and more subtle aspects of the topic Knowledge of principles Scant knowledge of and concepts at least principles and concepts adequate to communicate intelligently in the topic and to serve as a basis for further study Articulation of argument Evidence of imagination or flair. Evidence of originality and independent thought Clear evidence of analytical and evaluative skills. Well-reasoned argument based on broad evidence Sound argument based on evidence Very little evidence of ability to construct coherent argument Analytical and evaluative skills Problem solving Evidence of analytical and evaluative skills Some evidence of analytical and evaluative skills Very little evidence of analytical and evaluative skills Ability to solve non-routine Ability to use and apply problems fundamental concepts and skills Well developed skills in expression and presentation Good skills in expression and presentation. Accurate and consistent acknowledgement of sources. Adequate problem-solving Very little evidence of skills problem-solving skills Expression and presentation appropriate to the discipline Highly developed skills in expression and presentation Adequate skills in expression and presentation Inadequate skills in expression and presentation. Inaccurate and inconsistent acknowledgement of sources Source: University of Adelaide 2005 6 Chapter 2 Approaching study in the Faculty of Business and Economics Introduction Study at university is like a full-time job that requires commitment, and cannot just be added on to a range of other interests. It differs in many ways from study in other educational settings. A major difference is the independence and self reliance expected of students in their study. This idea concerns: †¢ Managing your time, balancing your study with other commitments. †¢ Your approach to learning in your units. In this chapter, we discuss the implications of independence and self reliance for the way you approach your studies. Assistance with time management is also available from university learning and personal support services, go to http://www. monash.edu/pubs/handbooks/srg/srg-266. html for faculty and campus contacts. 2. 1 The study â€Å"mindset† The units that you study present information, concepts and theories. It is expected that you will understand these fully. In addition, you must think critically and analytically so that you can evaluate and apply the knowledge, concepts and theories to different situations. You also need to think about the information from international and global perspectives, and to communicate your thinking clearly and appropriately orally and in writing. This means that you must do more in your written work than merely describe the concepts and knowledge, which will not get you good marks. There are times when you do need to provide definitions and an overview of concepts and theories, but such information usually only functions as an introduction for your integration of ideas, critical analysis and application, in relation to the issue, topic and task. Integration of information and critical and analytical thinking are central to the idea of independence in study. It means that you take an objective approach to the knowledge, concepts and theories. Such an approach is necessary so that you can: †¢ Integrate sometimes contrasting ideas from a range of sources and develop your own perspective on an issue or topic in relation to these; †¢ ‘Pull apart’ the knowledge in your units and explain how the parts all work together (analysis); †¢ Evaluate the strengths, weaknesses, advantages and disadvantages of knowledge, concepts and theories for particular situations (critical approach). This emphasis may differ from how you approached your study in other educational settings. For instance, you may have expected there to be one right answer, or two sides to an issue or topic. In your university studies, you need to understand that there are multiple views surrounding a topic or issue. The suitability of the view that you develop, often by synthesising several views, depends on the perspective from which you look at the issue. Such a concept of the relativity of knowledge applies to all the business and economics disciplines. In accounting, for instance, particular accounting situations are interpreted in terms of the Standard Accounting Concepts, and in econometrics and business statistics, a set of data is interpreted in relation to a particular purpose, or the needs of a particular user. Your ability to operate in the way explained above is based on you understanding the nature of academic enquiry and discovery, as we explain in the next section. 7 2. 2 Academic enquiry, discovery and independence in study Academic enquiry and discovery are concerned with the development or advancement of knowledge in a field of study, which occurs through research and investigation. Students engage in academic enquiry and discovery, to some degree, when they integrate and apply knowledge, concepts and theories to different situations. Thus, in university study, there are: †¢ No absolutes †¢ Knowledge evolves as researchers challenge, confirm or modify earlier understandings. When investigating an issue for an assignment task that is based on evidence from the literature, you need to overview and integrate the range of views surrounding the issue or topic. When you have formed your response and structured your written work to express this, you must indicate to your reader how you have arrived at that view. That is, the ideas and views that you read in the literature function as the ‘building blocks’ of your response. In your writing, if you do not explain to your reader the evidence or the building blocks for your view, you are only expressing opinions. These are ideas unsubstantiated by evidence and are not valued in university study. Another perspective The manager has a range of roles that are significant in the operations of an organisation, and decision making is one of these (Mintzberg, 1979) One perspective Decision making is an important aspect but only part of the manager’s role (Lee, 2000). Decision making in the manager’s role. Further perspective Decision making is the foundation of a manager’s role (Brown, 2002) Figure 1: Multiple views of a topic or issue Figure 1 depicts the situation in relation to a topic in a unit that relies on views in the literature. Note how decision-making in the manager’s role is seen from different perspectives by different authors. In a unit such as econometrics and business statistics, you may be required to analyse a set of data from a perspective of, for instance, a marketing manager, or a city council. Thus, the information in the data that would be relevant for the former would be on aspects such as sales, while for the city council which is concerned with providing services, the emphasis would be on the city’s population and its needs. Thus, in units that rely on data such as econometrics and business statistics, you need to analyse the data, form a perspective on the issue from the data analysis, and then select from your data to support the viewpoint you have developed. In a unit such as economics, it means being able to distinguish between facts and value statements. 8 2. 3 Approaching study in the faculty disciplines As you continue with your faculty study, you will realise that the approaches to knowledge in the disciplines of the faculty differ in some ways. Understanding such variation will help you adjust your thinking and approach across your units of study. This is particularly applicable if you are a double degree student and studying across two faculties. For instance, when you are studying a first year law unit in your Business and Economics degree, you will be presented with problem question assignments. You approach and think about these, and structure information differently, than you would for essays in a unit such as management, or, for example, reports in a marketing unit. You are using different forms of data and evidence, and applying critical analysis in ways that are particular to the unit and its discipline. The approach that the disciplines take to knowledge is reflected in the way information is put together in the texts and in lectures. These exemplify the characteristics of the particular discipline. To develop some understanding, you should think about your units in terms of: †¢ The type of data and info.

Intimately oppressed Essay

Chapter 6: THE INTIMATELY OPPRESSED It is possible. reading standard histories. to bury half the population of the state. The adventurers were work forces. the landowners and merchandisers work forces. the political leaders work forces. the military figures work forces. The really invisibleness of adult females. the overlooking of adult females. is a mark of their submersed position. In this invisibleness they were something like black slaves ( and therefore break one's back adult females faced a dual subjugation ) . The biological singularity of adult females. like skin colour and facial features for Negroes. became a footing for handling them as inferiors. True. with adult females. there was something more practically of import in their biological science than skin color-their place as childbearers-but this was non plenty to account for the general push backward for all of them in society. even those who did non bear kids. or those excessively immature or excessively old for that. It seems that their physical features became a convenience for work forces. who could utilize. feat. and cherish person who was at the same clip retainer. comrade. and bearer-teacher-warden of his kids. Societies based on private belongings and competition. in which monogamous households became practical units for work and socialisation. found it particularly utile to set up this particular position of adult females. something kindred to a house slave in the affair of familiarity and subjugation. and yet necessitating. because of that familiarity. and long-run connexion with kids. a particular patronization. which on juncture. particularly in the face of a show of strength. could steal over into intervention as an equal. An subjugation so private would turn out difficult to deracinate. Earlier societies-in America and elsewhere-in which belongings was held in common and households were extended and complicated. with aunts and uncles and grandmas and grampss all life together. seemed to handle adult females more as peers than did the white societies that subsequently overran them. conveying â€Å"civilization† and private belongings. In the Zuni folk of the Southwest. for case. extended families- big clans-were based on the adult female. whose hubby came to populate with her household. It was assumed that adult females owned the houses. and the Fieldss belonged to the kins. and the adult females had equal rights to what was produced. A adult female was more unafraid. because she was with her ain household. and she could disassociate the adult male when she wanted to. maintaining their belongings. Womans in the Plains Indian folk of the Midwest did non hold farming responsibilities but had a really of import topographic point in the folk as therapists. herb doctors. and sometimes holy people who gave advice. When bands lost their male leaders. adult females would go captains. Womans learned to hit little bows. and they carried knives. because among the Sioux a adult female was supposed to be able to support herself against onslaught. The pubescence ceremonial of the Sioux was such as to give pride to a immature Sioux maiden: â€Å"Walk the good route. my girl. and the American bison herds broad and dark as cloud shadows traveling over the prairie will follow you†¦ . Be duteous. respectful. gentle and modest. my girl. And proud walking. If the pride and the virtuousness of the adult females are lost. the spring will come but the American bison trails will turn to grass. Be strong. with the warm. strong bosom of the Earth. No people goes down until their adult females are weak and discredited. . . . It would be an hyperbole to state that adult females were treated every bit with work forces ; but they were treated with regard. and the communal nature of the society gave them a more of import topographic point. The conditions under which white colonists came to America created assorted state of affairss for adult females. Where the first colonies consisted about wholly of work forces. adult females were imported as childbearers and comrades. In 1619. the twelvemonth that the first black slaves came to Virginia. 90 adult females arrived at Jamestown on one ship: â€Å"Agreeable individuals. immature and incorrupt†¦ sold with their ain consent to colonists as married womans. the monetary value to be the cost of their ain transit. † Many adult females came in those early old ages as apprenticed servants- frequently teenaged girls-and lived lives non much different from slaves. except that the term of service had an terminal. They were to be obedient to Masterss and kept womans. The writers of Americans Working Women ( Baxandall. Gordon. and Reverby ) describe the state of affairs: â€Å"They were ill paid and frequently treated impolitely and harshly. deprived of good nutrient and privateness. Of class these awful conditions provoked opposition. Populating in separate households without much contact with others in their place. apprenticed retainers had one primary way of opposition unfastened to them: inactive opposition. seeking to make every bit small work as possible and to make troubles for their Masterss and kept womans. Of class the Masterss and kept womans did non construe it that manner. but saw the hard behaviour of their retainers as moroseness. indolence. malignity and stupidity. † For case. the GeneralCourt of Connecticut in 1645 ordered that a certain â€Å"Susan C. . for her rebellious passenger car toward her kept woman. to be sent to the house of rectification and be kept to hard labour and harsh diet. to be brought away the following talk twenty-four hours to be publically corrected. and so to be corrected hebdomadal. until order be given to the contrary. † Even free white adult females. non brought as retainers or slaves but as married womans of the early colonists. faced particular adversities. Eighteen married adult females came over on the Mayflower. Three were pregnant. and one of them gave birth to a dead kid before they landed. Childbirth and illness plagued the adult females ; by the spring. merely four of those 18 adult females were still alive. Those who lived. sharing the work of constructing a life in the wilderness with their work forces. were frequently given a particular regard because they were so severely needed. And when work forces died. adult females frequently took up the men’s work every bit good. All through the first century and more. adult females on the American frontier seemed close to equality with their work forces. But all adult females were burdened with thoughts carried over from England with thesettlers. influenced by Christian instructions. English jurisprudence was summarized in a papers of 1632 entitled â€Å"The Lawes Resolutions of Womens Rights† : In this consolidation which we call marriage is a locking together. It is true. that adult male and married woman are one individual. but understand in what mode. When a little Brooke or small river incorporateth with Rhodanus. Humber. or the Thames. the hapless rill looseth her name†¦ . A adult female every bit shortly as she is married is called covert †¦ that is. â€Å"veiled† ; as it were. clouded and overshadowed ; she hath lost her family name. I may more genuinely. farre off. say to a married adult female. Her new ego is her superior ; her comrade. her maestro. . . . Julia Spruill describes the woman’s legal state of affairs in the colonial period: †The husband’s control over the wife’s individual extended to the right of giving her castigation. . . . But he was non entitled to bring down lasting hurt or decease on his married woman. . . . † As for belongings:â€Å"Besides absolute ownership of his wife’s personal belongings and a life estate in her lands. the hubby took any other income that might be hers. He collected rewards earned by her labour. . . . Naturally it followed that the returns of the joint labour of hubby and married woman belonged to the hubby. † The father’s place in the household was expressed in The Spectator. an influential periodical in America and England: â€Å"Nothing is more satisfying to the head of adult male than power or rule ; and †¦ as I am the male parent of a household †¦ I am perpetually taken up in giving out orders. in ordering responsibilities. in hearing parties. in administrating justness. and in administering wagess and punishments†¦ . In short. sir. I look upon my household as a patriarchal sovereignty in which I am myself both king and priest. † No admiration that Puritan New England carried over this subjugation of adult females. At a test of a adult female for make bolding to kick about the work a carpenter had done for her. one of the powerful church male parents of Boston. the Reverend John Cotton. said: â€Å" . . . that the hubby should obey his married woman. and non the married woman the hubby. that is a false rule. For God hath put another jurisprudence upon adult females: married womans. be capable to your hubbies in all things. † A best-selling â€Å"pocket book. † published in London. was widely read in the American settlements in the 1700s. It was called Advice to a Daughter: You must first put it down for a Foundation in general. That there is Inequality in Sexes. and that for the better Economy of the World ; the Men. who were to be the Law-givers. had the larger portion of Reason bestow’d upon them ; by which means your Sexual activity is the better prepar’d for the Conformity that is necessary for the public presentation of those Duties which seem’d to be most properly assign’d to it†¦ . Your Sexual activity wanteth our Reason for your Conduct. and our Strength for your Protection: Ours wanteth your Gendeness to soften. and to entertain us. †¦ Against this powerful instruction. it is singular that adult females however rebelled. Women Rebels have ever faced particular disablements: they live under the day-to-day oculus of their maestro ; and they are stray one from the other in families. therefore losing the day-to-day chumminess which has given bosom to Rebels of other laden groups. Anne Hutchinson was a spiritual adult female. female parent of 13 kids. and knowing about mending with herbs. She defied the church male parents in the early old ages of the Massachusetts Bay Colony by take a firm standing that she. and other ordinary people. could construe the Bible for themselves. A good talker. she held meetings to which more and more adult females came ( and even a few work forces ) . and shortly groups of 60 or more were garnering at her place in Boston to listen to her unfavorable judgments of local curates. John Winthrop. the governor. described her as â€Å"a adult female of a haughty and ferocious passenger car. of a agile humor and active spirit. and a really voluble lingua. more bold than a adult male. though in apprehension and opinion. inferior to many adult females. † Anne Hutchinson was put on test twice: by the church for unorthodoxy. and by the authorities for disputing their authorization. At her civil test she was pregnant and ill. but they did non let her to sit down until she was close to prostration. At her spiritual test she was interrogated for hebdomads. and once more she was ill. but challenged her inquirers with adept cognition O f the Bible and singular fluency. When eventually she repented in composing. they were non satisfied. They said: â€Å"Her penitence is non in her visage. † She was banished from the settlement. and when she left for Rhode Island in 1638. 35 households followed her. Then she went to the shores of Long Island. where Indians who had been defrauded of their land thought she was one of their enemies ; they killed her and her household. Twenty old ages subsequently. the one individual back in Massachusetts Bay who had spoken up for her during her test. Mary Dyer. was hanged by the authorities of the settlement. along with two other Religious society of friendss. for â€Å"rebellion. sedition. and assumptive push outing themselves. † It remained rare for adult females to take part openly in public personal businesss. although on the southern and western frontiers conditions made this on occasion possible. Julia Spruill found in Georgia’s early records the narrative of Mary Musgrove Mathews. girl of an Indian female parent and an English male parent. who could talk the Creek linguistic communication and became an advisor on Indian personal businesss to Governor James Oglethorpe of Georgia. Spruill finds that as the communities became more settled. adult females were thrust back further from public life and seemed to act more trepidly than earlier. One request: â€Å"It is non the state of our sex to ground profoundly upon the policy of the order. † During the Revolution. nevertheless. Spruill studies. the necessities of war brought adult females out into public personal businesss. Women formed loyal groups. carried out anti-British actions. wrote articles for independency. They were active in the run against the British tea revenue enhancement. which made tea monetary values unacceptably high. They organized Daughters of Liberty groups. boycotting British goods. pressing adult females to do their ain apparels and purchase merely American-made things. In 1777 there was a women’s opposite number to the Boston lea Party-a â€Å"coffee party. † described by Abigail Adams in a missive to her hubby John: One eminent. wealthy. ungenerous merchandiser ( who is a unmarried man ) had a hogshead of java in his shop. which he refused to sell the commission under six shillings per lb. A figure of females. some say a 100. some say more. assembled with a cart and short pantss. marched down to the warehouse. and demanded the keys. which he refused to present. Upon which one of them seized him by his cervix and tossed him into the cart. Upon his happening no one-fourth. he delivered the keys when they tipped up the cart and discharged him ; so opened the warehouse. hoisted out the java themselves. set it into the short pantss and drove off. †¦ A big multitude of work forces stood amazed. soundless witnesss of the whole dealing. It has been pointed out by adult females historiographers late that the parts of propertyless adult females in the American Revolution have been largely ignored. unlike the genteel married womans of the leaders ( Dolly Madison. Martha Washington. Abigail Adams ) . Margaret Corbin. called â€Å"Dirty Kate. † Deborah Sampson Garnet. and â€Å"Molly Pitcher† were unsmooth. low-class adult females. prettified into ladies by historiographers. When women's rightist urges are recorded. they are. about ever. the Hagiographas of privileged adult females who had some position from which to talk freely. more chance to compose and hold their Hagiographas recorded. Abigail Adams. even before the Declaration of Independence. in March of 1776. wrote to her hubby: †¦ in the new codification of Torahs which I suppose it will be necessary for you to do. I desire you would retrieve the ladies. and be more generous to them than your ascendants. Do non set such limitless power in the custodies of hubbies. Remember. all work forces would be autocrats if they could. If peculiar attention and attending are non paid to the ladies. we are determined to agitate a rebellion. and will non keep ourselves jump to obey the Torahs in which we have no voice of representation. However. Jefferson underscored his phrase â€Å"all work forces are created equal† by his statement that American adult females would be â€Å"too wise to purse their brows with political relations. † And after the Revolution. none of the new province fundamental laws granted adult females the right to vote. except for New Jersey. and that province rescinded the right in 1807. New York’s fundamental law specifically disfranchised adult females by utilizing the word â€Å"male. † While possibly 90 per centum of the white male population were literate around 1750. merely 40 per centum of the adult females were. Propertyless adult females had small agencies of pass oning. and no agencies of entering whatever sentiments of defiance they may hold felt at their subordination. Not merely were they bearing kids in great Numberss. under great adversities. but they were working in the place. Around the clip of the Declaration of Independence. four 1000 adult females and kids in Philadelphia were whirling at place for local workss under the â€Å"putting out† system. Womans besides were tradesmans and hosts and engaged in many trades. They were bakers. tinworkers. beer makers. sixpences. rope-makers. lumbermans. pressmans. undertakers. woodsmans. stay-makers. and more. Ideas of female equality were in the air during and after the Revolution. Tom Paine spoke out for the equal rights of adult females. And the pioneering book of Mary Wollstonecraft in England. A Vindication of the Rights of Women. was reprinted in the United States shortly after the Revolutionary War. Wollstonecraft was reacting to the English conservative and opposition of the Gallic Revolution. Edmund Burke. who had written in his Contemplations on the Revolution in France that â€Å"a adult female is but an animate being. and an carnal non of the highest order. † She wrote: I wish to carry adult females to endeavour to get strength. both of head and organic structure. and to convert them that soft phrases. susceptibleness of bosom. daintiness of sentiment. and polish of gustatory sensation. are about synonymous with names of failing. and that those existences who are merely the objects of commiseration and that sort of love. . . will shortly go objects of disdain. . . . I wish to demo that the first object of commendable aspiration is to obtain a character as a human being. regardless of the differentiation of sex. Between the American Revolution and the Civil War. so many elements of American society were changing-the growing of population. the motion due west. the development of the mill system. enlargement of political rights for white work forces. educational growing to fit the new economic needs-that alterations were bound to take topographic point in the state of affairs of adult females. In preindustrial America. the practical demand for adult females in a frontier society had produced some step of equality ; adult females worked at of import jobs-publishing newspapers. pull offing tanneries. maintaining tap houses. prosecuting in skilled work. In certain professions. like obstetrics. they had a monopoly. Nancy Cott Tells of a grandma. Martha Moore Ballard. on a farm in Maine in 1795. who â€Å"baked and brewed. pickled and preserved. spun and sewed. made soap and dipped candles† and who. in 25 old ages as a accoucheuse. delivered more than a 1000 babes. Since instruction took topographic point inside the household. adult females had a particular function at that place. There was complex motion in different waies. Now. adult females were being pulled out of the house and into industrial life. while at the same clip there was force per unit area for adult females to remain place where they were more easy controlled. The outside universe. interrupting into the solid cell of the place. created frights and tensenesss in the dominant male universe. and brought away ideological controls to replace the relaxation household controls: the thought of â€Å"the woman’s topographic point. † promulgated by work forces. was accepted by many adult females. As the economic system developed. work forces dominated as mechanics and shopkeepers. and aggressiveness became more and more defined as a male trait. Women. possibly exactly because more of them were traveling into the unsafe universe outside. were told to be inactive. Clothing manners developed- for the rich and in-between category of class. but. as ever. there was the bullying of manner even for the poor-in which the weight of women’s apparels. girdles and half-slips. emphasized female separation from the universe of activity. It became of import to develop a set of thoughts. taught in church. in school. and in the household. to maintain adult females in their topographic point even as that topographic point became more and more unsettled. Barbara Welter ( Dimity Convictions ) has shown how powerful was the â€Å"cult of true womanhood† in the old ages after 1820. The adult female was expected to be pious. A adult male composing in The Ladies’ Repository: â€Å"Religion is precisely what a adult female needs. for it gives her that self-respect that bests suits her dependance. † Mrs. John Sandford. in her book Woman. in Her Social and Domestic Character. said: â€Å"Religion is merely what adult female needs. Without it she is of all time ungratified or unhappy. † When Amelia Bloomer in 1851 suggested in her feminist publication that adult females wear a sort of short skirt and bloomerss. to free themselves from the burdens of traditional frock. this was attacked in the popular women’s literature. One narrative has a miss look up toing the â€Å"bloomer† costume. but her professor admonishes her that they are â€Å"only one of the many manifestations of that wild spirit of socialism and agricultural radicalism which is at present so rife in our land. † In The Young Lady’s Book of 1830: â€Å" . . . in whatever state of affairs of life a adult female is placed from her cradle to her grave. a spirit of obeisance and entry. bendability of pique. and humbleness of head. are required from her. † And one adult female wrote. in 1850. in the book Greenwood Leaves: â€Å"True feminine mastermind is of all time timid. doubtful. and clingingly dependent ; a ageless childhood. † Another book. Remembrances of a Southern Matron: â€Å"If any wont of his irritated me. I spoke of it one time or twice. calmly. so bore it softly. † Giving adult females â€Å"Rules for Conjugal and Domestic Happiness. † one book ended with: â€Å"Do non anticipate excessively much. † The woman’s occupation was to maintain the place cheerful. keep faith. he nurse. cook. cleansing agent. dressmaker. flower organizer. A adult female shouldn’t read excessively much. and certain books should be avoided. When Harriet Martineau. a reformist of the 1830s. wrote Society in America. one referee suggested it he kept off from adult females: â€Å"Such reading will faze them for their true station and chases. and they will throw the universe back once more into confusion. † Womans were besides urged. particularly since they had the occupation of educating kids. to he loyal. One women’s magazine offered a award to the adult female who wrote the best essay on â€Å"How May an American Woman Best Show Her Patriotism. † It was in the 1820s and 1830s. Nancy Cott tells us ( The Bonds of Womanhood ) . that there was an spring of novels. verse forms. essays. discourses. and manuals on the household. kids. and women’s function. The universe exterior was going harder. more commercial. more demanding. In a sense. the place carried a yearning for some Utopian yesteryear. some safety from immediateness. Possibly it made credence of the new economic system easier to be able to see it as lone portion of life. with the place a oasis. In 1819. one pious married woman wrote: â€Å" . . . the air of the universe is toxicant. You must transport an counterpoison with you. or the infection will turn out foetal. † All this was non. as Cott points out. to dispute the universe of commercialism. industry. competition. capitalist economy. but to do it more toothsome. The cult of domesticity for the adult female was a manner of lenifying her with a philosophy of â€Å"separate but equal†-giving her work every bit every bit of import as the man’s. but separate and different. Inside that â€Å"equality† there was the fact that the adult female did non take her mate. and one time her matrimony took topographic point. her life was determined. One miss wrote in 1791: â€Å"The dice is about to be cast which will likely find the hereafter felicity or wretchedness of my life†¦ . I have ever anticipated the event with a grade of sedateness about equal to that which will end my present being. † Marriage enchained. and kids doubled the ironss. One adult female. composing in 1813: â€Å"The thought of shortly giving birth to my 3rd kid and the attendant responsibilities I shall he called to dispatch hurts me so I feel as if I should drop. † This despondence was lightened by the idea that something of import was given the adult female to make: to leave to her kids the moral values of self- restraint and promotion through single excellence instead than common action. The new political orientation worked ; it helped to bring forth the stableness needed by a turning economic system. But its really being showed that other currents were at work. non easy contained. And giving the adult female her sphere created the possibility that she might utilize that infinite. that clip. to fix for another sort of life. The â€Å"cult of true womanhood† could non wholly wipe out what was seeable as grounds of woman’s low-level position: she could non vote. could non have belongings ; when she did work. her rewards were one-fourth to one-half what work forces earned in the same occupation. Womans were excluded from the professions of jurisprudence and medical specialty. from colleges. from the ministry. Puting all adult females into the same category-giving them all the same domestic domain to cultivate- created a categorization ( by sex ) which blurred the lines of category. as Nancy Cott points out. However. forces were at work to maintain raising the issue of category. Samuel Slater had introduced industrial whirling machinery in New England in 1789. and now there was a demand for immature girls-literally. â€Å"spinsters†-to work the spinning machinery in mills. In 1814. the power loom was introduced in Waltham. Massachusetts. and now all the operations needed to turn cotton fiber into fabric were under one roof. The new fabric mills fleetly multiplied. with adult females 80 to 90 per centum of their operatives-most of these adult females between 15 and 30. Some of the earliest industrial work stoppages took topographic point in these fabric Millss in the 1830s. Eleanor Flexner ( A Century of Struggle ) gives figures that suggest why: women’s day-to-day mean net incomes in 1836 were less than 371/2 cents. and 1000s earned 25 cents a twenty-four hours. working 12 to sixteen hours a twenty-four hours. In Pawtucket. Rhode Island. in 1824. came the first known work stoppage of adult females factory workers ; 202 adult females joined work forces in protesting a pay cut and longer hours. but they met individually. Four old ages subsequently. adult females in Dover. New Hampshire. struck entirely. And in Lowell. Massachusetts. in 1834. when a immature adult female was fired from her occupation. other misss left their looms. one of them so mounting the town pump and devising. harmonizing to a newspaper study. â€Å"a flaring Mary Wollstonecraft address on the rights of adult females and the wickednesss of the ‘moneyed aristocracyà ¢â‚¬â„¢ which produced a powerful consequence on her hearers and they determined to hold their ain manner. if they died for it. † A diary kept by an unsympathetic occupant of Chicopee. Massachusetts. recorded an event of May 2. 1843: Great turnout among the misss. . . after breakfast this forenoon a emanation preceded by a painted window drape for a streamer went round the square. the figure 16. They shortly came by once more. . . so numbered forty-four. They marched around a piece and so dispersed. After dinner they sallied Forth to the figure of 42 and marched around to Cabot. †¦ They marched around the streets making themselves no recognition. †¦ There were work stoppages in assorted metropoliss in the 1840s. more hawkish than those early New England â€Å"turnouts. † but largely unsuccessful. A sequence of work stoppages in the Allegheny Millss near Pittsburgh demanded a shorter working day. Several times in those work stoppages. adult females armed with sticks and rocks broke through the wooden Gatess of a fabric factory and stopped the looms. Catharine Beecher. a adult female reformist of the clip. wrote about the mill system: Let me now present the facts I learned by observation or enquiry on the topographic point. I was at that place in mid- winter. and every forenoon I was awakened at five. by the bells naming to labour. The clip allowed for dressing and breakfast was so short. as many told me. that both were performed hastily. and so the work at the factory was begun by lamplight. and prosecuted without remittal boulder clay 12. and chiefly in a standing place. Then half an hr merely allowed for dinner. from which the clip for traveling and returning was deducted. Then back to the Millss. to work till seven o’clock. †¦ it must be remembered that all the hours of labour are spent in suites where oil lamps. togedier with from 40 to 80 individuals. are wash uping the healthful rule of the air †¦ and where the air is loaded with atoms of cotton thrown from 1000s of cards. spindles. and looms. Middle-class adult females. barred from higher instruction. began to monopolise the profession of primary-school instruction. As instructors. they read more. communicated more. and instruction itself became insurgent of old ways of believing. They began to compose for magazines and newspapers. and started some ladies’ publications. Literacy among adult females doubled between 1780 and 1840. Women became wellness reformists. They formed motions against dual criterions in sexual behaviour and the victimization of cocottes. They joined in spiritual organisations. Some of the most powerful of them joined the antislavery motion. So. by the clip a clear women's rightist motion emerged in the 1840s. adult females had become adept o rganizers. fomenters. talkers. When Emma Willard addressed the New York legislative assembly in 1819 on the topic of instruction for adult females. she was beliing the statement made merely the twelvemonth before by Thomas Jefferson ( in a missive ) in which he suggested adult females should non read novels â€Å"as a mass of trash† with few exclusions. â€Å"For a similar ground. excessively. much poesy should non be indulged. † Female instruction should concentrate. he said. on â€Å"ornaments excessively. and the amusements of life. . . . These. for a female. are dancing. pulling. and music. † Emma Willard told the legislative assembly that the instruction of adult females â€Å"has been excessively entirely directed to suit them for exposing to advantage the appeals of young person and beauty. † The job. she said. was that â€Å"the gustatory sensation of work forces. whatever it might go on to be. has been made into a criterion for the formation of the female character. † Reason and faith teach us. she said. that â€Å"we excessively are primary beings †¦ non the orbiters of work forces. † In 1821. Willard founded the Troy Female Seminary. the first recognized establishment for the instruction of misss. She wrote subsequently of how she disquieted people by learning her pupils about the human organic structure: Mothers sing a category at the Seminary in the early mid-thirtiess were so shocked at the sight of a student pulling a bosom. arterias and venas on a chalkboard to explicate the circulation of the blood. that they left the room in shame and discouragement. To continue the modestness of the misss. and save them excessively frequent agitation. heavy paper was pasted over the pages in their text editions which depicted the human organic structure. Women struggled to come in the all-male professional schools. Dr. Harriot Hunt. a adult female doctor who began to pattern in 1835. was twice refused admittance to Harvard Medical School. But she carried on her pattern. largely among adult females and kids. She believed strongly in diet. exercising. hygiene. and mental wellness. She organized a Ladies Physiological Society in 1843 where she gave monthly negotiations. She remained individual. withstanding convention here excessively. Elizabeth Blackwell got her medical grade in 1849. holding overcome many slights before being admitted to Geneva College. She so set up the New York Dispensary for Poor Women and Children â€Å"to give to hapless adult females an chance of confer withing doctors of their ain sex. † In her first Annual Report. she wrote: My first medical audience was a funny experience. In a terrible instance of pneumonia in an aged lady I called in audience a kindhearted doctor of high standing. . . . This gentleman. after seeing the patient. went with me into the parlor. There he began to walk about the room in some agitation. crying. â€Å"A most extraordinary instance! Such a one ne'er happened to me before ; I truly do non cognize what to make! † I listened in surprise and much perplexity. as it was a clear instance of pneumonia and of no unusual grade of danger. until at last I discovered that his perplexity related to me. non to the patient. and to the properness of confer withing with a lady doctor! Oberlin College pioneered in the admittance of adult females. But the first miss admitted to the divinity school at that place. Antoinette Brown. who graduated in 1850. found that her name was left off the category list. With Lucy Stone. Oberlin found a formidable obstructionist. She was active in the peace society and in antislavery work. taught colored pupils. and organized a debating nine for misss. She was chosen to compose the beginning reference. so was told it would hold to be read by a adult male. She refused to compose it. Margaret Fuller was possibly the most formidable rational among the women's rightists. Her get downing point. in Woman in the Nineteenth Century. was the apprehension that â€Å"there exists in the heads of work forces a tone of experiencing toward adult female as toward slaves†¦ . † She continued: â€Å"We would hold every arbitrary harasser thrown down. We would hold every way unfastened to Woman every bit freely as to Man. † And: â€Å"What adult female needs is non as a adult female to move or govern. but as a nature to turn. as an mind to spot. as a psyche to populate freely and unimpeded. . . . † In the class of this work. events were set in gesture that carried the motion of adult females for their ain equality rushing alongside the motion against bondage. In 1840. a World Anti-Slavery Society Convention met in London. After a ferocious statement. it was voted to except adult females. but it was agreed they could go to meetings in a curtained enclosure. The adult females sat in soundless protest in the gallery. and William Lloyd Garrison. one emancipationist who had fought for the rights of adult females. Saturday with them. It was at that clip that Elizabeth Cady Stanton met Lucretia Mott and others. and began to put the programs that led to the first Women’s Rights Convention in history. It was held at Seneca Falls. New York. where Elizabeth Cady Stanton lived as a female parent. a homemaker. full of bitterness at her status. declaring: â€Å"A adult female is a cipher. A married woman is everything. † She wrote subsequently: I now to the full understood the practical troubles most adult females had to postulate with in the stray family. and the impossibleness of woman’s best development if. in contact. the main portion of her life. with retainers and kids. . . . The general discontent I felt with woman’s part as married woman. female parent. housekeeper. doctor. and religious usher. the helter-skelter status into which everything fell without her changeless supervising. and the jaded. dying expression of the bulk of adult females. impressed me with the strong feeling that some active steps should he taken to rectify the wrongs of society in general and of adult females in peculiar. My experiences at the World Anti-Slavery Convention. all I had read of the legal position of adult females. and the subjugation I saw everyplace. together swept across my soul†¦ . I could non see what to make or where to begin-my merely idea was a public meeting for protest and treatment. An proclamation was put in the Seneca County Courier naming for a meeting to discourse the â€Å"rights of woman† the 19th and 20th of July. Three hundred adult females and some work forces came. A Declaration of Principles was signed at the terminal of the meeting by 68 adult females and 32 work forces. It made usage of the linguistic communication and beat of the Declaration of Independence: When in the class of human events. it becomes necessary for one part of the household of adult male to presume among the people of the Earth a place different from that they have hitherto occupied †¦We clasp these truths to be axiomatic: that all work forces and adult females are created equal ; that they are endowed by their Godhead with certain unalienable rights ; dial among these are life. autonomy and the chase of felicity. . . . The history of world is a history of perennial hurts and trespasss on the portion of adult male toward adult female. holding in direct object the constitution of an absolute dictatorship over her. To turn out this. allow facts be submitted to a blunt universe. . . . Then came the list of grudges: no right to vote. no right to her rewards or to belongings. no rights in divorce instances. no equal chance in employment. no entryway to colleges. stoping with: â€Å"He had endeavored. in every manner that he could. to destruct her assurance in her ain powers. to decrease her self-respect and to do her willing to take a dependent and low life†¦ . † And so a series of declarations. including: â€Å"That all Torahs which prevent adult female from busying such a station in society as her scruples shall order. or which place her in a place inferior to that of adult male. are contrary to the great principle of nature. and hence of no force or authorization. † A series of women’s conventions in assorted parts of the state followed the 1 at Seneca Falls. At one of these. in 1851. an aged black adult female. who had been born a slave in New York. tall. thin. have oning a grey frock and white turban. listened to some male curates who had been ruling the treatment. This was Sojourner Truth. She rose to her pess and joined the outrage of her race to the outrage of her sex: That adult male over at that place says that adult female needs to be helped into passenger cars and lifted over ditches. . . . Cipher of all time helps me into passenger cars. or over mud-puddles or gives me any best topographic point. And a’nt I a adult female? Expression at my arm! I have ploughed. and planted. and gathered into barns. and no adult male could head me! And a’nt I a adult female? I would work every bit much and eat every bit much as a adult male. when I could acquire it. and bear the cilium every bit good. And a’nt I a adult female?I have borne 13 kids and seen mutton quads most all sold off to bondage. and when I cried out with my mother’s heartache. none but Jesus heard me! And a’nt I a adult female? Therefore were adult females get downing to defy. in the 1830s and 1840s and 1850s. the effort to maintain them in their â€Å"woman’s sphere. † They were taking portion in all kinds of motions. for captives. for the insane. for black slaves. and besides for all adult females.